Many believe that the use of language is
what sets us apart from the lower species. It also allows us the opportunity to
communicate our ideas, intent, stories, and new concepts with others in a
successful manner. After several years of research, investigators have also
determined that language may be used as an exemplar of cognitive psychology.
This is because the process of language requires an individual to use many of
the skills and/or functions that are directly related to the principles of cognitive
psychology. Furthermore, some of these skills and/or functions include the
cognitive ability to pay attention, receive and perceive information, use verbal
mental imagery, store and retrieve memory, problem solve, reason, and make
decisions. Therefore, this work will address whether I think language acts as
an adequate representation of the material that was provided for seven units of a previous cognitive psychology course. The unit numbers and material discussed will
also include the following:
UNIT 2 – THE BRAIN & PERCEPTION
UNIT 3 – ATTENTION & PERFORMANCE
UNIT 4 – MENTAL IMAGERY & REPRESENTATION
UNIT 5 – ENCODING & STORAGE OF MEMORY
UNIT 6 – RETENTION & RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY
UNIT 7 – PROBLEM SOLVING & EXPERTISE
UNIT 8 – REASONING & DECISION MAKING
UNIT 2 – THE BRAIN & PERCEPTION
This unit discussed the functional and structural elements
of the brain along with perception. When reviewing other research that
addressed how the brain works and perceives information, I did find one
textbook which is called: Neuropsychological
Assessment. According to (Lezak, Howieson &
Loring. 2004), “the brain is an intricately patterned complex of small and
delicate structures. Three major anatomical divisions of the brain succeed one
another along the brain stem: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain”
(p. 42). Therefore, individual cognition can be determined based on how information
is processed and flows through certain structures within these divisions. The
basic pattern in which cognition seems to occur will begin with reception of
information that comes from the environment, followed by conversion and/or
processing of that information in a way that it becomes useful and successfully
perceived. This overall process is also completed through specialized receptor
cells and certain sections of the brain. Although, this usually occurs within
normal cognition, there are times when one or more of these brain functions may
not be normally developed due to injury or damage. After
reviewing several articles that covered different visual and auditory deficits that
may affect cognition I chose to write about Achromatopsia. According to (Futterman. 1998-2004), “this is a rare
hereditary vision disorder which affects 1 person in 33,000 in the U. S” (p. 1). People who have this deficit may exhibit one or more of the following signs and
symptoms when tested:
1. Young Age – This condition is usually more pronounced in infants and
children.
2. Photophobia – This is an increased sensitivity or intolerance to
light.
3. Poor visual acuity – The individual will not have a proper or normal
level of detailed vision.
4. Lack of color perception – The individual lacks color vision and sees
in black, white or grey.
5. Stable condition – Symptoms have been present since infancy and remained
unchanged.
6. Normal fundus – This
part includes the retina, macula, fovea, optic disc and posterior pole.
7. Abnormal photopic ERG – There is an abnormality in cone functioning
when tested.
8. Normal rod vision ERG – These are normal results in rod functioning
when tested.
9. Nystagmus –
This is an involuntary or voluntary eye movement that can reduce overall
vision. There are also several ways that this condition may affect normal
cognition in patients. One main thing is that if people process stimuli in
black, white or shades of grey, then overall perception will also be
distorted. Therefore, this may affect
how the individual will use language when discussing all aspects of the
environment around them. For example, if I say “that’s a nice pink flower” the
person won’t use the real color when seeing or processing the image, because he
or she has never seen it. Furthermore, the individual’s verbal description and
color of the flower may be completely different so communication will also be
affected. Since this is the case, I also believe that language acts as a representative model of
the material for this unit.
UNIT 3 – ATTENTION
& PERFORMANCE
This unit discussed how the level of
expertise in attention may affect overall performance of language. Many
researchers, scientists, psychologists and other professionals believe that as
human beings, we can only process incoming information by focusing on one oral
message or visual object at a time. This is due to something called serial
bottlenecks, which is the point when all incoming information may no longer be
processed at the same time because it interferes with the procession of an
individual stimuli and/or message. After reviewing all of the selection in
attention theories that are discussed in our text, I also addressed Treisman’s
Attenuation Theory. According to (Anderson. 2010), “this model hypothesized
that certain messages would be weakened but not filtered out entirely on the
basis of their physical properties” (p. 67). One pro
of this theory is that it allows
individuals the opportunity to process multiple stimuli or messages while being
filtered through the unattended channel based on word importance of each
individual stimulus. This process is also known as the threshold effect.
Stimuli with a low threshold are more likely to be filtered into one’s
conscious awareness while stimuli with a high threshold, is more likely to get
filtered out by one’s conscious awareness. One specific article that discussed
whether performance may be affected by selection in attention is called “The Impact of Cell Phone Conversations on Driving: A
Meta-Analytic Approach.”
According to (Horrey & Wickens. 2004), a meta-analytical study
was conducted to determine if lack of focus and performance may be different
among hands on and hands free cell phone use and conversations that take place
with a passenger in the car. This included sixteen studies and
results were acquired after closer analysis of 37 total entries. These results indicated that overall
“driving
performance were roughly equivalent whether the conversation was with a
passenger or whether over a cell phone” (p. 1). This is because certain
distractions were present in all of these situations. Therefore, the conclusion
is that a lack of cognitive attention and focus can be affected no matter which
of these tasks are being performed while driving. However, one
con of this theory is that it is
unable to scientifically explain how semantic analysis works, which has also
caused much controversy within the overall scientific community. This is
because semantic analysis is a
determination of how language acquires meaning. This process focuses on and
identifies relationships between certain words, symbols, signs and/or phrases
that explain cognition and language. This is also extremely important because a
scientific explanation for this process must be acquired to enhance a theory’s
reliability and validity.
Even
though, there may be a lack in explaining how semantic analysis works with
Treisman’s Attentuation Theory, I still support the idea that the level of
expertise in attention does affect how human beings choose to perform language.
This is because I choose to pay attention and perform language skills based on
what most captures my attention. Therefore, I also believe that language acts
as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit.
UNIT 4 – MENTAL
IMAGERY & REPRESENTATION
This unit
discussed certain ways that information can
be brought into our minds, what form it may take, along with, how it is handled
and organized. One specific way that information may be processed and
represented within the human mind is known as mental imagery. According to (Anderson. 2010),
mental imagery is defined as “the processing of perceptual-like information in
the absence of an external source for the perceptual information” (p. 93).
Researchers have also spent many years trying to determine how individuals
process information with mental imagery, if it may be directly related to
perceptual processing, which different brain structures are involved during the
overall process, and how we develop and use these images within our
environment. One particular mental imagery based study was conducted by Roland
and Friberg to analyze brain activation of participants who suffered from brain
damage and those who have normal brain function. The results indicated that
when processing information with a mental image, certain areas of the brain
were used and it depended on whether participants were asked to process a
verbal or visual image. Participants who processed a verbal image of rehearsing
a song jingle or language task, showed activation in the prefrontal cortex and
the parietal-temporal region of the posterior cortex. During this time, the
researchers were also able to determine that those who suffered with brain
damage showed deficits in the ability to carry out a verbal imagery task because the specialization areas of language were
affected. However, when analyzing participants that were asked to complete a
visual task of finding their way around streets in their neighborhoods, the results
showed activation in the parietal cortex, temporal cortex and occipital cortex.
This means that even though certain specialized areas for processing language
and visual information may be different, some of the same brain structures were
still used when processing both verbal and visual imagery. Therefore, the
conclusion of this study was that all of these structures are involved in the
cognitive processing of visual perception and attention. These results also
provided evidence which supports the idea that we experience a cognitive
process known as embodied cognition with mental
imagery and/or overall perception. This is the belief that one’s motor
abilities, personal experiences and environment are what determine individual
thought processes and/or overall cognition.
Furthermore, a
second article that
I read was called “Personality differences in mental imagery and the effects on
verbal memory.” This discussed how mental imagery may be processed differently when analyzing
those who are extroverts versus those who are introverts. The study was
conducted using a sample which included participants who were both extraverts
and introverts. According to (McDougall & Pfeifer. 2012), all participants
were “asked to remember a series of concrete and abstract nouns,
including a set of lexically ambiguous concrete homonyms (e.g., earth=1. plant,
2. soil)” (p. 1). The results indicated that extraverts appeared to exhibit
higher recall of vivid imagery over those who were introverts, when analyzing
aspects of how the type of word was presented. This is because initial results
showed that higher levels of recall were observed with visual imagery tasks
that involved unambiguous nouns first, concrete homonyms second and abstract
nouns third. However; these results did not indicate that extroverts
possess a higher level of recall over introverts, even when examining concrete
stimuli. Furthermore, later research revealed that neuroticism may actually be
the driving factor which caused these differences in recall and word type among
extroverts and introverts. They also believed that this higher recall could
best be explained by the context availability theory. This means that it may
just be easier to process thought for concrete objects over abstract ones. This
cognitive process is also based on how long it takes to retrieve information
from working memory. One other main conclusion of this study was that the
overall results could not confirm that there is a correlation between higher
recall with mental imagery and having an extroverted personality type, so the
authors provided recommendations for future study. When learning about the overall
cognitive process of mental imagery and perception, it is also important to
understand the differences and similarities between the perception of an
imaginary object and the perception of an actual object. One main reason for
this is because it lets us understand that perceiving an imaginary object in
the mind may be similar to actual objects in the environment but there are differences.
We can then use this information to better understand the world, so our overall
language skills and personality may be enhanced. Since this may be the case, I
also believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that
was discussed in this unit.
UNIT 5 – ENCODING
& STORAGE OF MEMORY
This unit
discussed how information is encoded and stored in memory, along with different types of memory that are
used for different purposes. According to (Anderson. 2010), “elaborative processing
involves creating additional information that relates and expands on what it is
that needs to be remembered.” Elaboration is also an important cognitive
process because it may allow an increased ability to recall or remember many
things because they have been encoded and stored in a particular way. One study that
was done to prove that using elaboration will initiate higher memory skills, was
conducted by J. R. Anderson and Bower (1973). During this time, all
participants were asked to remember simple sentences but only some were asked to
also use elaboration during the process. The results indicated that only 57% of
those who didn’t use elaboration were able to remember the objects being
studied, while 72% of those who did use elaboration were able to remember the
objects being studied. Therefore, these results also support the idea that encoding
and storage of memory with elaboration can increase one’s overall level of
memory retention. Since this may be the case, certain techniques have also been
designed that include this aspect of memory processing. One particular
technique is known as the PQR4 Method. This includes six phases that can be
used to study a chapter which are: 1. Preview, 2. Questions, 3. Read, 4.
Reflect, 5. Recite, and 6. Review.
Furthermore,
encoding and storage of memory may also be affected based on how and what
events actually occur within one’s environment. One particular type of memory
that can also develop due to this issue is known as a flashbulb memory. According
to (Anderson. 2010), flashbulb memories are “events so important that they seem
to burn themselves into memory forever” (p. 172). The reason that these memories
occur are because certain events can have an extremely powerful emotional or
mental impact on an individual’s life. This is especially true when an
individual experiences an event that may initially cause major trauma, despair,
fear or grief at the time of occurrence. Two examples of events that may cause
flashbulb memories are when President Kennedy was assassinated and the
terrorist’s attacks that occurred on 9/11. This is because when some
individuals think about these events, they instantly remember where they were
and/or what they were doing at that very moment. According to our reading, one
particular study
that also investigated this was reported by Talairco and Rubin (2003) and
involved students from Duke University. Throughout a 42 week duration
participants were asked at different times to recall memories of the specific
attacks, along with other ordinary events from the same day. The results
indicated that these participants showed no evidence of being able to recall
flashbulb memories at a better rate than everyday events which occurred on the
same day. Although, one major variable that may have affected the results of
this study was that these participants had not experienced the attacks
firsthand and therefore, may have possessed a much lower overall connection to
the events. Furthermore, a second study was reported by Sharot, Martorella,
Delgado, and Phelps (2007) that involved participants who were in different
sections of Manhattan at the time of the Twin Tower attacks. These individuals
were asked to recall memories three years after the attacks and the summer
prior to that day. The researchers also measured brain activity based on how
close each participant was to the actual site of the attacks. The results
indicated that higher activation within the amygdala was measured in those who
were physically closest to the attacks. Therefore, this also indicates that
retention of flashbulb memories seem to be higher when individuals experience
an increased state of arousal. Even though this did occur, the accuracy of
these results still could not be verified because it is not clear whether
individuals acquire this cognitive ability via a special biological mechanism
or because these events may have been discussed at an overall higher rate.
After
learning about how information is encoded and stored in memory, along with specific types of memory, I
do believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that
was discussed in this unit. This is because we will use our cognitive language
skills with those around us based on how individual memory is encoded and
stored. This overall process may also
cause certain memory types such as flashbulb memories when communicating about
certain events. Therefore, the language that is used during that time may be
different, because some will experience this phenomenon but others won’t.
UNIT 6 – RETENTION
& RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY
This unit discussed how memories must be
retained and retrievable after they have been encoded and stored. This is because if retention or
retrieval of memory is not possible, then it will initiate a higher level of overall
forgetting among individuals. According to this units reading, research has also been
trying to determine and explain what may cause forgetting within the brain.
During this overall research process, two specific theories about how
forgetting occurs have also caused a controversial debate among many within the
field because some question the validity and reliability of the evidence which
is being provided. The two theories in question are:
Decay Theory – This supports the idea that forgetting occurs
due to a decrease or decay in long-term potentiation. This happens because
there is non-activation of the memories in question. In other words, it
provides evidence that if we don’t use certain memories then we lose them, much
like many other abilities.
Interference Theory – This supports the idea that forgetting occurs
due to the interference of new information with old information. This can also
be reversed and people may forget new information due to interference with old
information.
After learning
more about both of these concepts, I also think that the interference theory
best explains why forgetting occurs within the brain. The first reason that I
chose to support this theory is because it seems very possible that we may
forget certain memories due to new incoming information. This could occur
because the brain can only process a certain level of memory so some
is replaced as it more gets processed. While, the second reason that I chose to
support this theory is because there may be many times when the brain is so
consumed by old memories that it is unable to cognitively process certain new
information.
Furthermore, after
reviewing several articles and books which also support the interference
theory, I was also able to find one called: The Present Status
of Interference Theory. According to (Postman. 2012), the main point of this article was to provide
evidence which supports the idea that this theory “occupies an unchallenged
position as the major significant analysis of the process of forgetting” (p. 1).
The author also supported his belief by providing evidence for two different
sections. The first included extension and refinement information that was
acquired through formal experiments which addressed retroactive and proactive
inhibition and the second discussed analysis data from extra-experimental
sources. The results seem to hold such a high level of validity that there has
been a decrease in debate about basic assumptions that are made concerning this
theory. Therefore, this article confirms my initial belief that this theory
best explains how forgetting really occurs.
However, after years of research, there are also many different types of memory
that have been distinguished and may affect the overall process of retention
and retrieval of memory. According to (Anderson. 2010), “a great deal of
research has looked at dissociations between implicit and explicit memory in
normal individuals” (p. 203). A description of these two types of memory along
with their separate subclasses is as follows:
Implicit Memory – This is also
known as non-declarative memory and it represents certain knowledge which is so
deeply embedded that we are unconscious to it. This improves performance
because it is memory that helps us remember how to do certain things. The brain
structures that are responsible for processing and storing these unconscious
memories include the motor cortex, caudate nucleus, cerebellum and putamen, which
all involve motor control. The subclasses that relate to implicit memory are
also as follows:
Procedural Skills – One example of this is the ability to
know how to ride a bike even if it has been years since the last time this
skill was performed.
Priming – One example of this is if someone reads a list of
words that include “concert.” When that individual is later asked to complete a
word that starts with “con” they are more likely to say concert versus others
like connect or contact.
Conditioning – One example of this is when an individual may
exhibit an emotional fear of dogs.
Nonassociative – This is when an individual may exhibit
habituation which is a reduced response
because a certain stimulus is frequently presented. One example of this could
include a reduction in fear of dogs because the individual is around them
daily. One other type of memory that is associated with this is called
sensitization which is an increased response because a certain stimulus is
frequently presented. One example of this could include an increased fear of
dogs because the individual is around mean and aggressive dogs that are
physically threatening.
Explicit Memory – This is also
known as declarative memory and it represents certain knowledge which can be
recalled when needed. This improves performance because it is memory that helps
us know what needs to be recalled, such as certain facts and events. The brain
structures that are responsible for processing and storing these conscious memories
include the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, temporal cortex
and others. The subclasses that relate to explicit memory are also as follows:
Episodic Memory – these memories allow us to recall and reconstruct
autobiographical events that may have taken place during certain points in our
lives. One example of this is the ability to recall where your last birthday
party was and what things occurred during the overall celebration.
Semantic Memory – these memories allow us to recall
structured records of things which
include general meanings, facts, concepts, and other knowledge about the
external world around us. Some examples of these memories may include knowing what
a certain food is called, how objects work, and capital cities.
Sensory
Memory – This has the shortest retention
time and includes two main subclasses. The first one is Iconic Memory which forms visual input memories. One example of
this is how we may see lines and shapes while drawing in the sky with
sparklers, even though these things are not really there. These images will
also last in our minds for several seconds after they have initially been
drawn. The second is Echoic Memory
which forms auditory input memories. One example of this is when we process
memory of a song that was once played on the radio.
Short-Term
Memory – This involves memory that
can only be processed and stored for a short period of time. One example of
this could be when an individual looks up a phone number and is only able to
remember it long enough to dial the number.
After learning more about how memories must be
retained and retrievable, I believe that language acts as a representative
model of the material that was discussed in this unit. This is because we will
all use language skills based on whether certain memory can be retained and
retrieved. One other important factor concerning how we will use language can
be determined by which type of memory each individual will form when the
stimuli is presented.
UNIT 7 – PROBLEM SOLVING & EXPERTISE
This unit discussed what can be done with
information in memory after it has been perceived
and stored. The two main topics included how information may be used with
problem solving and how to build expertise through certain cognitive skills
and/or abilities. One major cognitive issue that can occur when trying to
problem solve is called functional fixedness and According to (Anderson. 2010), this is “the tendency to see
objects only as serving conventional problem-solving functions and thus failing
to see that they can serve novel functions” (p. 232). There are also several
times in normal daily life when this type of bias toward certain objects can
occur, so many problems may not be solved when they are presented. Therefore,
one process that can develop expertise with
problem solving is called skills acquisition. This is includes three stages
which are as follows:
1. Cognitive Stage – This is the first stage of skill acquisition and it
is when the individual develops a conscious understanding of the required task.
Therefore,
the learner will begin to know what to do and some insight about how to
accomplish it. However, the learner may experience errors or problems when
attempting to complete a specific task at an optimal level.
2. Associative Stage – This is the second stage of skill acquisition and
it is when the individual will repeat associated movements, so his or her ability to
complete the task at an enhanced level will develop. During this stage, errors
may still occur, but will be at a lower or reduced rate.
3. Autonomous Stage – This is the third stage of skill acquisition and it
is when the ability to complete a task becomes automatic. Therefore, the
individual will also be able to perform the skill and associated movements,
with little to no conscious thinking.
According to (Kaplan Cognitive Psychology Online) this process can also be defined as “a method of gaining expertise in a
particular skill characterized by the incidental memorization of patterns that
allow much more proficient skill-related activities” (Unit 7 Key Terms). One
particular article that addressed further discussed development of expertise is
called: Can everyone achieve proficiency with the laparoscopic
technique? Learning curve patterns in technical skills acquisition. This study
attempted to determine whether all participants could learn certain curve
patterns in order to become experts in laparoscopic technique skills. It
included thirty seven surgical residents who had limited skills with
laparoscopic techniques, and comparable measures that were obtained by
experienced laparoscopic surgeons. They were asked to complete 6 specific
tasks, 10 times each and the scores were acquired based on errors, time it took
and economy of motion. The results measured the following four learning curve
patterns:
Group 1 - The experienced surgeons measured expertise with
all 10 repetitions from the start.
Group 2 - These participants began to show expertise between
the 2 and 9 repetition.
Group 3 - This group showed low levels of expertise after all
10 repetitions were performed.
Group 4 - These participants showed no expert or improvement
skills which are needed to learn laparoscopic technique. Therefore, the
conclusion was that some individuals won’t develop expertise of laparoscopic
techniques skills, when utilizing pattern learning over 10 repetitions.
Even though these results were acquired, I still believe that
expertise can occur in most individuals to develop enhanced problem solving
skills. This is because the group may have developed expert skills if more
repetitions would have been offered. Furthermore, I also believe that language
acts as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit.
This is because individuals will first need to develop the language
skills that are required to solve specific problems and build expertise over
time.
UNIT 8 – REASONING &
DECISION MAKING
This unit
discussed the importance of language in reasoning and decision making, which is the ultimate goal of most
cognitive experiences. According to (Anderson. 2010), researchers have been
“investigating brain areas involved in reasoning, and it suggests that people
can bring different systems to bear on different reasoning problems” (p. 273).
There are also two well-established logical methods of reasoning that have been
identified which are:
Inductive Reasoning – This is a
process of reasoning that involves the use of specific observations to reach a
general theory or logical conclusion. It can be categorized
into different types which include: statistical syllogism, simple induction,
generalization, false analogy, and casual inference. An inductive argument is also evaluated based on whether
it is strong or weak and there are many times when the conclusion will be false
even when the specific observations are true. This is because the conclusion is
based on an individual’s educated prediction and/or bias thinking. Specific
bias thinking that may occur with this type of reasoning could be confirmation
bias, availability heuristic, and the predictable world bias. Furthermore, when
specific observations are false, the argument will be considered unsound.
Deductive Reasoning – This is a
process of reasoning that involves the use of a theory or general statements to
reach a specific logical conclusion. A deductive argument is evaluated based on
its overall level of validity and soundness. Since, this is the case there are
times when a deductive argument may be considered valid but unsound. For
example, when a specific conclusion is true, the argument may be valid, even
though the general statements that were used are false. Since, a deductive argument is based on
individual emotion and belief, there are also many times when it may contain a
certain level of bias thinking. One example of bias thinking that can occur is
when there may be differences in beliefs among varying cultures. Therefore, a
deductive argument will only be sound if it is valid and the general statements
are true.
One specific article that also addressed
the importance of reasoning and decision making is called “Social Norms and
Self-Efficacy Among Heavy Using Adolescent Marijuana Smokers.” According to
(Walker., Stephens., Neighbors., Rodriguez & Roffman. 2011), “adolescence
is a time in which individuals are particularly likely to engage in health-risk
behaviors, with marijuana being the most prevalent illicit drug used” (p. 727).
When adolescents choose to initially engage in marijuana use, it can sometimes
lead to other drugs and possible addiction. Since this can be a serious issue,
the authors also chose to investigate whether risky behavior like substance
abuse could be correlated with perceived social norms and self-efficacy that exist
within the adolescent population. Therefore, the authors discussed a
cross-sectional study that was conducted to confirm whether normative
perceptions and self-efficacy due play a key role in initiating marijuana use
among adolescents. The participants included 180 adolescents ranging from 14
years of age to 19 years of age who had reported using marijuana at least 9
days in one month. The results indicated that marijuana use among adolescents
was correlated with perceived social norms but when measuring self-efficacy,
the level of supportive data was not strong enough to confirm that it is also a
contributing factor. Regardless, of these findings the authors still discussed
how both perceived social norms and self-efficacy may be further addressed
among this age group to reduce the risk of substance use and possible
addiction. This article can also correspond with the material in the unit when discussing how
adolescents may engage
is risky behavior due to specific reasoning and poor decision making skills.
This is because the unit addressed the idea that adolescents might do this due
to lack of knowledge and experience or different values and situations. One
example of this is if a popular adolescent female wants an unpopular adolescent
female to do drugs with her. The unpopular adolescent female may then mentally
try and process what could happen if she accepts the offer to do drugs. This
mental processing during a problem situation is also known as framing effects
and if the unpopular adolescent female frames a mental image that being
accepted among popular female peers is desirable, then she may be more likely
to do the drugs. Therefore, I also believe that language acts as a
representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit. This is
because there are numerous times when language can affect overall reasoning and
decision making skills among all age groups. This may also be a major reason
why so many crimes and fatalities have occurred within our society.
SUMMARY
For many years language is believed to be what
sets us apart from the lower species because it allows us to successfully
communicate ideas, intent, stories, and new concepts with others. Researchers
have also supported the idea that language can be used as an exemplar to
represent cognitive psychology because the process requires an individual to
use many of the skills and/or functions that are related to its principles.
Therefore, this work examined specific units and concepts of cognitive
psychology to confirm whether this belief may be true or not. The concepts
within these units included: the brain and perception, attention and
performance, mental imagery and representation, encoding and storage of memory,
retention and retrieval of memory, problem solving and expertise and reasoning
and decision making.
After providing a lengthy discussion and supportive evidence for each of these units and concepts, I also confirmed that
language can be used as an exemplar to represent cognitive psychology. This is
because without language, most of these cognitive psychological concepts would
be affected and/or never occur in a normal manner. It is also very important
that a correlation between normal language and cognitive psychology do exist
because this information can be used to offer patients an overall higher
standard of care and support what is known as the “goodness of fit.” This means
that it may be easier to offer a more compatible environment according to each
patient’s individual temperament based on proper use of language. There are two types of “Goodness of Fit” which are the
behavioral fit which addresses how behavior fits within the environment, and
the emotional fit which addresses how temperament fits with others in the environment.
One major benefit of understanding the concept of goodness of fit is that I can
also learn where certain changes may need to be made to further enhance each
patients experience and level of care.
REFERENCES:
Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive psychology and its implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY.
Futterman, F. (1998-2004). Understanding & coping with Achromatopsia. 2nd Edition. Retrieved on September 29 2012 via the World Wide Web at http://www.achromat.org/uc.pdf
Howieson, D., Lezak, M., & Loring, D. (2004). Neuropsychological
Assessment (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Neighbors, C., Rodriguez, M. L., Roffman, A. R., Stephens, S. R., Walker, D. D. (2011). Social norms and self-efficacy among heavy using adolescent marijuana smokers. Retrieved via the Kaplan Library at
McDougall, S., Pfeifer,
G. (2012). Personality differences
in mental imagery and the effects on verbal memory. Retrieved on October 10 2012 via the World Wide Web at
