ADDRESSING FALSE MEMORIES IN CHILDREN

For many years, addressing the topic of false memories and/or false memory syndrome in adults and children has been extremely important for several reasons. One specific reason is because there may be times when children claim to remember incidents of  certain abuse or other trauma that haven’t actually occurred, simply because they have been led to believe these memories are true. Parents or other caretakers may then press charges against the accused and legal court proceedings will take place. Therefore, according to (Fivush. 2002), “as a growing number of children are brought in to the legal system, there is increasing concern over their ability to provide credible testimony (p. 55). This concern is also crucial during court proceedings that involve child sexual abuse, because it can protect those who are accused by identifying the existence of false memories.

Since, this possible issue must be addressed in a highly professional and legal manner, researchers have also produced extensive information that supports the idea that these memories can be easily created in children and that they are way more dynamic and fluid then people may initially understand. With this possibility in mind, the following work will address how false memories may be formed in children and what this tells researchers about the nature of memory.

HOW ARE FALSE MEMORIES FORMED IN CHILDREN?

According to previous research there are several ways that false memories can be formed in children. One main cognitive reason that these memories may be created is due to decreased memory strength or source confusion. This can also occur if the child is experiencing some type of trauma or cognitive deficit. Although, this can occur a second main reason that a child may recall this type of memory is due to experiencing accidental or unintentional coaching. This can occur when the child may hear things about an event that are untrue, but will choose to believe that the information is factual. 

One example of this is if a young boy over hears his sister talking about details concerning her sexual abuse. He may then process the details of this abuse as real memories that also affected him. Furthermore, a third reason that false memories may occur is due to intentional coaching. This can occur when others try to convince the child that certain memories exist when they are actually invented for some other purpose. According to (Leding. 2012), “within a variety of false memory paradigms, including the misinformation effect, the imagination inflation paradigm, and false confession research, persuasion strategies help create and strengthen false memories” (p. 256). Therefore, the author believed that even though false memories may be created without persuasion strategies, most will occur due to factors like investigators that ask leading questions or interrogators that try to elicit what they want to hear. 

One other article that supported the idea that children may be intentionally coached into reporting false memories is based on how they are questioned in the courtroom. According to (Lyon, Scurich, Choi, Handmaker, & Blank. 2011), “in child sexual abuse cases, the victim’s testimony is essential, because the victim and the perpetrator tend to be the only eyewitnesses to the crime. A potentially important component of an abuse report is the child’s subjective reactions to the abuse. Attorneys may ask suggestive questions or avoid questioning children about their reactions, assuming that children, given their immaturity and reluctance, are incapable of articulation” (p. 448). 

In order to provide evidence that supports this belief, two studies were conducted to compare how children provide evaluative content, which included descriptions of emotion, physical reactions and cognitive recall, in reply to different question-types. These types included “How” questions, “Wh” questions, “Option-Posing” questions and “Suggestive” questions. The results indicated that “How” questions seemed to more productive in acquiring a higher level of factual evaluative content. Since, this occurred the authors also suggested that interviewers and attorneys should always ask “How” questions when they want to elicit evaluative reactions that may be more valid and substantial to the case. Therefore, it is important to ensure that children are questioned about the abuse in a way that it won’t be leading or support persuasion strategies that direct or suggestive questions may initiate. This way, the child may also have an easier time reporting real memories versus those that are created based on what they think the interviewers and attorneys want to hear.  

WHAT DOES THIS TELL RESEARCHERS ABOUT THE NATURE OF MEMORY?

After learning that false memories may occur accidentally or through unintentional and intentional coaching, this can offer researchers further theories about the nature of memory. One major idea that this may create is that some portions of memory can always be distorted and influenced by new information. This influence and/or information can also come from opinions that are shared by external factors, such as authority figures, respected family members, or cultural beliefs and it cannot be avoided.

Since this is the case, this could also provide further evidence which supports something known as the Interference Theory. According to (Anderson. 2010), this theory suggests that “forgetting is caused by other memories interfering with the retention of the target memory” (p. 181). Therefore, when children are unintentionally or intentionally manipulated in to believing and processing memories of sexual abuse, this may also cause extinction of previous memory which proves the new information is false and there was no sexual abuse.

SUMMARY

For many years, researchers have been addressing the topic of false memories which is also known as false memory syndrome. Since, this can occur in both adults and children the need to understand the true cause is extremely important for many reasons. One major reason is because there may be occasions when children claim to remember incidents of sexual abuse that never actually occurred simply because they were led or manipulated by others. Parents or other caretakers will then press charges against the accused and legal court proceedings will follow. When these proceedings occur, there may also be concern about the credibility of the child’s testimony because these memories may have been formed due to coaching of some type. This concern is also warranted because the legal outcome can drastically impact the lives of the child, family members, and the accused. 

Since, the issue of false memories must be addressed in a highly professional and legal manner; researchers have also produced extensive information that may support the idea that these memories can be easily created. This is especially true for children because they are more impressionable toward certain external factors and may be easily influenced. Therefore, certain research studies have provided evidence that the procession of false memories may be way more dynamic and fluid then initially suspected. Since, this might be the case the following work also addressed different ways that false memories might be formed in children. Some ways include accidental formation along with unintentional and intentional coaching via certain persuasion strategies. Furthermore, since false memories may occur through these factors, it also tells researchers that the nature of memory can always be manipulated or distorted by incoming information and during the procession of overall short/long-term memory in children.

References:

Wiley, J. (2002). Children's Testimony: A Handbook of Psychological Research and Forensic Practice. Wiley Series in the Psychology of Crime, Policing, and Law. Retrieved via the Kaplan Library at http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/nlebk_90301_AN?sid=62e8ffef-b47b-456a-a411-f22391d7dbaf@sessionmgr113&vid=1

Leding, K. J. (2012). False Memories and Persuasion Strategies. American Psychological Association (2012). Retrieved via the Kaplan Library at http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=3353605f-3026-450a-a68f-252bf0054c1d%40sessionmgr114&vid=2&hid=114

Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY. 

Lyo, D. T., Scurick, N., Choi, K., Handmaker, S., Blank, R (2011). “How Did You Feel?”: Increasing Child Sexual Abuse Witnesses’ Production of Evaluative Information. American Psychological Association (2012). Retrieved via the Kaplan Library at  http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=f2975da5-d370-4936-b644-b7303b61377a%40sessionmgr115&vid=2&hid=116

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BIPOLAR I DISORDER & BIPOLAR II DISORDER

According to (Butcher., Mineka., & Hooley. 2010), bipolar disorders can be defined as “mood disorders in which a person experiences both manic and depressive episodes” (p. G-3). However, when comparing Bipolar I Disorder and Bipolar II Disorder, there are subtle differences and treatment needs. These are also as follows:

Bipolar I Disorder

- The client experiences at least one full blown manic or mixed episode and depressive episodes with no hypomanic episodes.

- A client with mania exhibits an abnormal mood that may also be combined with an abnormal level of energy or increased activity.  

- Mania can include psychotic symptoms such as paranoia, delusions or hallucinations.

- Mania does interfere with daily functioning at a severe level.

- The client may have to be hospitalized due to the severity of symptoms.

One example of a Bipolar I diagnose (using modifiers) could be a 35 year old man named Robert who is experiencing manic episodes that cause him to exhibit out-of-control abnormal happiness. During these episodes he will burst out laughing at serious events like funerals or hospital visits with friends. He runs up and down the street late at night screaming that he loves his neighbors and also tries to kiss every person that he sees in a grocery store whether he knows them or not. This disorder may also be causing a severe impact on loved ones and some people within his community. This is because his abnormal behavior may cause embarrassment for family members and/or fear among those who don’t know and understand him. One other major thing that could occur during these episodes is the risk of harm to himself or others. Since, this may be the case I also believe that this may be the most difficult form to live with.

Bipolar II Disorder

- The client experiences at least one hypomanic episode and depressive episode with no full blown manic or mixed episodes.

- A client with hypomania exhibits a sustained mood which may become heightened, superior or irritable.

- Hypomania does not include psychotic symptoms but delusions or hallucinations may still be exhibited during depressive episodes.

- Hypomania does not interfere with daily functioning at such a severe level.

- The client does not have to be hospitalized due the severity of symptoms.

One example of a Bipolar II diagnose (using modifiers) could be a 40 year old man named William who is experiencing hypomanic episodes that make him extremely cheerful. When these occur, he only needs half of the sleep that he normally gets, he speaks more rapidly than normal and he spends more money than normal. This disorder may also cause a severe impact on loved ones and other people within his community. This is because his behavior could cause loss of sleep for other family members, lack of proper communication and possible financial hardship due to increased spending.

Even though these disorders are different, treatment options may be similar and depend on the severity of each case. General treatment can also include a combination of psychotherapy, medication, hospitalization and lifestyle changes. However, one major difference is that bipolar I clients may be prescribed mood stabilizers, while bipolar II clients may be prescribed antidepressants.

Reference:

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th Ed.). Boston, MA. Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Higher Education. 

UNDERSTANDING ANTISOCIAL, BORDERLINE & AVOIDANT PERSONALITY DISORDER

     There are some cases when a psychologist or counselor may suspect that a client is experiencing a certain type of personality disorder. According to (Butcher., Mineka., & Hooley. 2010), personality disorder is defined as “a gradual development of inflexible and distorted personality and behavioral patterns that result in persistently maladaptive ways of perceiving, thinking about, and relating to the world” (p. G-16). The general DSM-IV-TR also has a specific set of criteria that must be used when attempting to diagnose personality disorder for all clients. These criteria include the following:

1. The behavior must be inflexible and pervasive when compared to social norms.

2. The behavior must be stable and last over a long period of time.

3. The behavior causes major distress or impairment in occupational, social, or other functioning.

4. The behavior can’t be better explained by a different mental disorder.

5. The behavior can’t be explained due to substance use or general medical condition.

The specific types of personality disorder which are listed in the DSM-IV-TR also include: Cluster A - Paranoid | Schizoid | Schizotypal, Cluster B - Antisocial | Borderline | Histrionic | Narcissistic, Cluster C - Avoidant | Dependent | Obsessive-Compulsive and Personality Disorder NOS. These types also have a specific set of symptoms which can be caused by factors such as abuse and/or neglect during childhood. Since this can occur, the overall purpose of this work is to analyze how symptoms associated with 3 specific types of personality disorder may be directly related to childhood abuse and/or neglect. These types also include antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder and avoidant personality disorder.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

     According to the (DSM-IV-TR. 1995-2010) individuals who have antisocial personality disorder will “regularly disregard and violate the rights of others. These behaviors may be aggressive or destructive and may involve breaking laws or rules, deceit or theft.” Research has shown that most people who suffer with this disorder also experienced serious and repeated physical and/or emotional abuse as children. This may include regular violent beatings and/or constant ridicule at the hands of a parent or guardian who also suffers from antisocial personality disorder. The symptoms associated with this particular disorder and how they may be directly related to prior child abuse are also as follows:

1. The individual exhibits lack of conformity by repeatedly completing acts that can lead to arrest. The reason for this is because the individual may have learned in childhood that following rules doesn’t matter because it was okay for parents to abuse even though that is illegal.
2. The person deceives others by conning for pleasure or personal profit, lying, and using aliases. This may be because the individual has learned from parents that there are certain ways to get what is wanted without worrying about what others think or feel.
3. The individual will exhibit impulsivity by never planning ahead. This could be because the individual learned in childhood that abuse can occur at any moment, so live spontaneously.
4. The person shows aggressive and irritable behavior by repeatedly fighting or assaulting others. This may be because the individual is imitating what was learned by watching a respected model.

5. There is a reckless disregard for the safety of others and self. This may be because there was no regard for the individual’s safety during childhood, so he or she doesn’t show it for others.
6. The individual is consistently irresponsible maintaining financial obligations and employment.

This might be because the person is experiencing a high overall level of low self- confidence, self-worth and feeling like he or she doesn’t belong. When this feeling occurs, the person may also have a reduced level of overall drive to personally succeed and/or help others.

7. The individual exhibits a lack of remorse when hurting, mistreating, or stealing from others. This may be because the individuals parents or guardian showed no remorse when the abuse occurred. Therefore, that lack of compassion and love toward people may continue to cycle.

Borderline Personality Disorder

     Individuals who have borderline personality disorder will regularly exhibit a pattern of instability with self-image, interpersonal relationships, and impulsivity that begins in early adulthood. Research has shown that most people who suffer with this disorder have also experienced abandonment and/or severe neglect as children. The symptoms associated with this disorder and how they may be directly related to prior abandonment and/or severe neglect are also as follows:

1. There are frantic efforts to avoid imagined or real abandonment. This may be because the individual fears the possibility of experiencing abandonment or neglect again.

2. There is a pattern of intense and unstable interpersonal relationships which is characterized by alternating between extreme idealization and devaluation. This may be stages of personality that are used in an attempt to keep or control people so no further abandonment or neglect will occur.

3. There is an identity disturbance which causes a persistent unstable sense of self or self-image. This may be due to feelings of low self-esteem or self-worth from being abandoned or neglected.

4. There is an increased level of impulsivity in at least two areas which include sex, spending, reckless driving, substance abuse and binge eating. This may be due to subconscious feelings that initiate a desire to self-harm or punish after feeling unwanted or unloved by others.

5. The individual will exhibit self-mutilating behavior or suicidal behavior that includes recurrent threats and gestures. This may be due to feelings of self-loathing and worthlessness after being abandoned and/or neglected by people that were supposed to be loved ones.

6. Due to a marked reactivity of mood, there is an affective instability that lasts for a few hours. This may be due to an inability to process stress in a normal manner because it was not learned during a crucial stage of development.

7. The individual is experiencing a chronic feeling of emptiness. This may be because the individual was not shown adequate affection as a child and therefore, always feels alone.

8. There is a high level of anger that may be uncontrollable and inappropriate at times. This might be because the individual has kept negative feelings about being abandoned and/or neglected bottled up. Therefore, these feelings may have grown and are getting uncontrollable.

9. The person exhibits a transient paranoid state that is usually stress related. This may be due to being psychologically overwhelmed by subconscious feelings of abandonment and/or neglect.  

Avoidant Personality Disorder

     Individuals who have avoidant personality disorder will regularly exhibit feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitivity to criticism or rejection and social inhibition beginning in early adulthood. Research has shown that most people who suffer with this disorder also experienced frequent or infrequent ridicule and/or humiliation by other family members during childhood. The symptoms associated with this disorder and how they may be directly related to prior ridicule and/or humiliation are also as follows:

1. The individual avoids occupational activities due to fear of disapproval, criticism or rejection. This may be because the individual is conditioned to expect the negative behaviors from others.

2. The individual only interacts with people when certain of being liked. This may be a defense mechanism to avoid not being liked by others who will ridicule or humiliate.

3. There is restraint in intimate relationships due to a fear of being ridiculed or shamed. This may be because the individual wants to avoid getting close enough to risk experiencing that behavior.

4. The individual is preoccupied with being rejected or criticized in social situations. This may be because the individual experienced so much of that behavior that it is now expected.

5. Interpersonal situations are inhibited due to continuous feelings of inadequacy. This may be because avoiding interpersonal situations to prevent inadequacy was learned in childhood.

6. The individual views self as personally unappealing, socially inept, or inferior to others. This may be because the individual was forced to feel inadequate and less worthy at an early age.

7. There is reluctance to take personal risks or engage in activities because of embarrassment. This may be because engaging in less risks and activities reduces the chance of embarrassment.

Summary

     As previously stated, there are some cases when a psychologist or counselor will suspect that a client is experiencing personality disorder. Therefore, the general DSM-IV-TR has a specific set of criteria that must be used when considering this diagnose for all clients. These criteria also state that the behavior must be inflexible and pervasive when compared to social norms, stable and last over a long period of time, cause significant distress or impaired function in certain areas, and not be explained by a different mental disorder, substance use, or general medical condition. The specific types of personality disorder which are listed in the DSM-IV-TR include: Cluster A - Paranoid | Schizoid | Schizotypal, Cluster B - Antisocial | Borderline | Histrionic | Narcissistic, Cluster C - Avoidant | Dependent | Obsessive-Compulsive and Personality Disorder NOS.  These also involve symptoms which may be related to some type of prior abuse and/or neglect. Therefore, the overall purpose of this work was to analyze how symptoms associated with antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder and avoidant personality disorder may be directly related to childhood abuse and/or neglect.

References:

BehaveNet: APA Diagnostic Classification DSM-IV-TR. Copyright (2000). American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved on January 10 2013 via the World Wide Web at http://behavenet.com/apa-diagnostic-classification-dsm-iv-tr

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th Ed.). Boston, MA. Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Higher Education. 

HOW TO DEFINE & ASSESS PERSONALITY

For many years, researchers have been conducting assessment tests, to identify different aspects of personality. According to (Cohen & Swerdlik. 2010. p. l-20), this construct is defined as “an individual’s unique constellation of psychological traits and states, including aspects of values, interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, sense of personal identity, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral styles, and related characteristics.” However, (Cloninger, Allen, Friedman & Shustac) define personality as “the underlying causes within the person of individual behavior and experience” (p. 2). There have also been several individuals who have created theories which explain personality. One particular man was Sigmund Freud, and his highly recognized theory included 5 stages of personality development. These were as follows:

1. Oral - The child’s focus is the mouth which includes sucking, chewing, biting and eating.    

2. Anal - During this stage, the child’s focus will shift to the anal region.

3. Phallic - This is when the child becomes interested in sex.

4. Latency period - “libidinal energy is submerged or expressed” (Bukatko. 2008. p. 15).

5. Genital - During the final stage of development, mature genital satisfaction will occur.

            Although, Sigmund Freud was considered the father of psychoanalysis, and modern personality theory, there was one individual who also provided a theory about personality development that deviated from Freud’s original work in several ways. His name was Erik Erikson and his theory focused on 8 stages of development. These included the following:

1. Trust Versus Mistrust - will feel secure with others in the world or unable to trust others.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - feel confident/independent or dependent on others.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt - secure in the ability to lead others or will lack initiative and follow.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority - begin feeling confident in abilities or inferior if not acquired.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion - self-identity is formed or confusion if it’s not obtained.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation - will explore intimate relations with others or avoid intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation - will develop a sense of belonging by giving back and being productive or experience stagnation if accomplishing nothing or being nonproductive.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair - During this time, one develops integrity because he or she is fulfilled with life or despair due to feelings of dissatisfaction.

            Regardless, of how one’s personality may develop, researchers have also determined that it is very important to measure the level of construct validity associated with a particular testing method, when attempting to assess this construct. The reason for this is because it allows the opportunity to analyze how well a test instrument measures this construct, when compared to similar testing methods. If researchers are unable to support construct validity, then the assessment method should not be used, because final data may not be valid. Many researchers also believe that it is necessary to gather evidence of convergent and discriminant validity when measuring construct validity. This is because according to (Zechmeister, Zechmeister, & Shaughnessy. 2001), “convergent validity identifies “the degree of how two measures with the same construct go together,” while “discriminant validity determines the extent of how the new measure correlates badly with measures that don’t have the same construct (p. 343). With this in mind, the purpose of this paper will be to address how I can establish convergent and divergent validation in the test construction of my new test instrument for personality, and how these validation factors were explored when constructing a specific test instrument called the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – 2 (MMPI-2).

How can I establish convergent validation in test construction for a new instrument?

            According to (Campbell, Fiske. 1959. p. 104), one way that I can establish convergent and discriminant validation for my new instrument that measures personality is by “utilizing a matrix of intercorrelations among tests representing at least two traits, each measured by at least two methods.” This is also known as a multitrait-multimethod matrix. Therefore, the first thing that I will do to complete this process is gather evidence which establishes convergent validity, so I can include this in my test manual. This validation process can also be accomplished by administering two testing methods, to 50 adults within my sample. The reason that multiple tests will be administered is because I can acquire scores for two testing methods which are used to assess personality, while also measuring the data in a different way. The test methods which will be used are also as follows:

      Personalities R Us Scale (PRUS) - This is my new instrument, which is a paper and pencil method that measures personality by scoring answers that are based on 40 true or false questions. These questions also cover several different aspects of personality in an attempt to identify abnormal to normal personality traits for each individual test-taker. The test results are then determined based on a where the final score falls on a range scale. This scale also goes from 1 to 10, with 4 through 8 being the normal range.    

      Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - This projective test was developed by Henry Murray in 1938 and it includes 31 vague picture cards. The examiner performs this test by asking the client to respond to each specific card. The client’s response must also include a story which has a beginning, middle and ending. The test results are then determined based on the clients story.

            Once this step is completed, I will than calculate the scores of both testing methods to identify any possible correlations between these testing methods. If the testing methods identify high correlations, than I will be able to establish and/or present evidence of convergent validation to include in my test manual. This is because a high correlation between these methods, will confirm that both assessment instruments appear to measure the construct of personality.

How can I establish divergent validation in test construction for personality?

            Although, I might establish convergent validity by following the steps above, this may not be enough evidence to confirm a high degree of construct validity when the PRUS is used to measure personality. Therefore, I will also need to establish evidence of discriminant validity, which supports divergent validity. When utilizing a matrix of intercorrelations among testing methods, which is suggested by (Campbell, Fiske. 1959), I can establish discriminant validity that supports divergent validity, by measuring two different constructs. Therefore, I will establish evidence of discriminant validity for the PRUS by administering a third test to the same adults who initially took that and the TAT for personality. For this particular case, I will use The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) which assesses the construct of mood. The reason for this choice is because it “is designed to assess individual differences in the habitual use of two emotion regulation strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression” (Gross, John. 2003. p. 1). The overall purpose of this process is to also try and demonstrate that the PRUS does measure personality versus a variable that is linked or similar, like mood. This can be confirmed by calculating scores on the PRUS and ERQ which should have a very low correlation. For example, if I discover that the correlation score between these two testing methods is .05 then I will establish evidence of discriminant validity. I will then be able to also include this validation data in my test manual for the PRUS. Although, I would choose the above steps to establish evidence of convergent validity and discriminant validity which supports divergent validation, there are more ways that this process can be completed. One particular case includes how this was explored for the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2).   

How were convergent and divergent validation explored when constructing the MMPI-2?

            In order to establish a higher degree of convergent and divergent validation to support construct validity, test constructers first analyzed information that was acquired via the MMPI. The MMPI-2 was then revised by updating several aspects, which included the addition of three validity scales that identify further traits associated with the construct of abnormal behavior. According to (Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik. 2010. p. 411), the MMPI-2 is still designed to assess abnormal behavior but now “contains a total of 567 true-false items, including 394 items that are identical to the original MMPI items, 66 items that were modified or rewritten, and 107 new items.” The age range of test takers was changed from 14 years of age to 18 years of age and the standardization sample was also modified to be more representative. When constructing this revised testing method, the 10 clinical scales which were used in the original MMPI are still present, however; they are now identified as score numbers versus the original names. These original names, along with the new references, are as follows:

MMPI = Hypochondriasis (Hs) / MMPI-2 = Score 1

MMPI = Depression (D) / MMPI-2 = Score 2

MMPI = Hysteria (Hy) / MMPI-2 = Score 3

MMPI = Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) / MMPI-2 = Score 4

MMPI = Masculinity/Femininity (Mf) / MMPI-2 = Score 5

MMPI = Paranoia (Pa) / MMPI-2 = Score 6

MMPI = Psychasthenia (Pt) / MMPI-2 = Score 7

MMPI = Schizophrenia (Sc) / MMPI-2 = Score 8

MMPI = Hypomania (Ma) / MMPI-2 = Score 9

MMPI = Social Introversion (Si) / MMPI-2 = Score 10

            Although, these 10 scales remained the same other than being changed to number references, there are several revisions that were also made to the validity scales which were included with the original MMPI. The original validity scales which measure things like general test-taking attitude and test truthfulness remained the same. These are as follows:

The Lie Scale (L) - This is used to determine what individuals deliberately lie when taking the test. This can also determine when people may be exaggerating themselves to appear to be better than any other person.

The K Scale - This 30 item scale is designed to identify psychopathology in those individuals who may have profiles that usually fall within a normal range. This includes measurements that are acquired when assessing, family and interpersonal relationships and self-control. Test-takers who receive high scores on this scale are also viewed as being defensive.

The ? Scale – This is also identified as the “cannot say” scale and its score represents how many items were left unanswered on the test. The test manual which is associated with the MMPI also recommends that if a test has 30 or more unanswered questions, it should be declared as invalid.

Although, these scales remained the same, content component scales and three more validity scales were added to the MMPI-2. These were also added so further traits which may be associated with abnormal behavior can be measured simultaneously. According to (Cherry. 2012. p. 2), the new scales are as follows:

The TRIN Scale – This “was developed to detect patients who respond inconsistently. This section consists of 23 paired questions that are opposite of each other.”
The VRIN Scale – This is known as the Variable Response Inconsistency Scale and it is also used to measure and/or identify responses that may be inconsistent.
The Fb Scale (F^b) – This 40 item scale is used to measure the same F scale issues, but only during the last half of the test. When and individual scores high on this scale, it can mean that he or she lost interest and simply began answering the questions randomly.

            The MMPI-2, it is also scored via an interpretive report, which is constructed by the trained psychologist. These scores are then converted to normalized “T scores” which are based on a scale that ranges from 30 to 120. The “normal” T score range on this test should be between 50 and 65. Any scores that are above or below this range may also be considered significant. These particular tests will then be interpreted by the trained psychologist. Since, revisions were made by utilizing the MMPI and new scales were added to measure further traits that may be associated with abnormal behavior, the MMPi-2 also establishes a higher degree of overall construct validity. This is because the test construction process was carried out while addressing and establishing evidence of both convergent and discriminant validation (to support divergent validity). Therefore, when assessing the construct of abnormal behavior, this may be a more appropriate testing method to use when attempting to measure more accurate and/or valid results,

Summary

            For many years, researchers have been interested in the fascinating construct of personality and how it should be defined. There are also several well-known theories concerning personality development, by individuals like Sigmund Freud and Erik Erickson. Although, there has been vast research conducted to address different aspects of personality, researchers have determined that it always important to analyze and/or measure the degree of construct validity associated with a particular testing method. This is to ensure that a chosen test instrument will measure the construct of personality, at the same degree as similar testing methods. Many also believe that evidence which supports convergent and discriminant validity should be explored when measuring construct validity. This is because it will identify “the degree of how two measures with the same construct go together,” and “the extent of how the new measure correlates badly with measures that don’t have the same construct (Zechmeister, Zechmeister & Shaughnessy. 2001. 343). Therefore, the second goal of this paper was to provide a step by step process to establish convergent and divergent validation in the test construction for personality, according to (Campbell, Fiske. 1959). Finally, the third goal of this paper was to also discuss how these validation factors were explored, when constructing a widely used assessment instrument called the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – 2 MMPI-2. This process included several revisions that were made when compared to the original test version known as the MMPI. Since, these revisions and/or updates were made to address construct validity, the MMPI-2 appears to be a better test method to use when assessing or measuring the construct of abnormal behavior.

References:

Bukatko, D. (2008) Child and adolescent development, a chronological approach.  Ohio; Cengage Learning.

Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2010). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction       to tests and measurement. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Cloninger, C. S., Allen, P. B., Friedman, S. H., Schustack, W. M. Past & present views of personality. Custom Edition for Kaplan University. Pearson Custom Publishing. Boston, MA. 

Zechmeister, Zechmeister, Shaughnessy (2001). Essentials of research methods in psychology. New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Campbell, D. T., Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the    multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81-105. Retrieved via the Kaplan Library. Resource No. AN bul-56-2-81 

Gross, J.J., & John, O.P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348-362.

Cherry, K. (2012). About.com.Psychology: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - MMPI-2. Retrieved via the World Wide Web at http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologicaltesting/a/mmpi_3.htm

HOW TO CONDUCT AN ASSESSMENT INVOLVING SUBSTANCE ABUSE IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE EXAMPLE CASE STUDY

My Name: Susan Lancaster

Client Name: Michelle

Age Range: Middle Childhood to Adolescence

Description of Problem

Michelle was referred to me by a local agency due to being arrested for possession of heroin with intent to sell. While in custody, she was also drug tested and the results came back positive for heroin and marijuana, which added to her initial charges. Although, my client has not received any prior assistance for substance abuse, she is unwilling to enter a treatment program, even though it has been court mandated. She has also stated that she is not going to stop doing drugs and does not care what happens to her. My client then stated that she should just kill herself because it would be better than the life that she is living now.

With this in mind, one major problem that I would like to address in order to properly assist this client is how to reduce her current level of substance abuse. Two things that may be included in this process are the administration of a comprehensive substance abuse assessment test, along with possible implementation of a substance abuse treatment plan. A second major problem that I would like to address is how her social, biological, and psychosocial development may be negatively affecting her overall sense of self during two stages of growth. This is because she has stated that she does not care what happens to her and even threatened self-harm and/or suicide. However, in order to determine which specific treatment methods and overall plan may be required to suit her substance abuse and possible developmental needs, I would first need to acquire further information about her background history, cognitive development and current overall psychological state.

Background History

After meeting with Michelle for approximately 2 hours, she began feeling comfortable enough in my presents, to discuss some of the reasons that she may be experiencing a substance abuse problem. When I asked her why she was doing drugs, she stated that this began around the age of 11 (middle childhood) because she was exposed to marijuana within her home environment. According to Michelle, her parents were both regular users and there were many times when it was left on the kitchen table, or they would smoke it in front of her with their friends. At the time, she also tried to tell her parents that this was illegal and wrong but they said that her opinion didn’t matter because she was just a kid and to mind her own business.

According to my client, one day she had a friend spend the night, and they tried some of the marijuana that had been left on the kitchen table. Since, then she has become a regular smoker and believes that she is addicted to this drug. My client also stated that when she turned 12, she began hanging out with a new friend who sells heroin. According to her, this friend asked her to try this drug and also gave her some to sell. My client said that she wasn’t sure if she wanted to sell this drug and knew that it was wrong, but didn’t want to say no and lose her new friend. Michelle then stated that she also started having awful feelings about herself during this time because she didn’t feel like she was loved by her parents.

Since Michelle has experienced these issues during middle childhood, her cognitive, social, biological, and psychosocial development was also negatively affected. This may also be because according to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, “the combination of adult expectations and children’s drive toward mastery sets the stage for the psychological conflict of middle childhood, industry versus inferiority, which is resolved positively when children develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks” (Berk, 2009. p.330). This means that a child’s overall sense of self will develop in a positive manner, each time he or she successfully completes a useful skill and/or task. According to this theory, peer and adult social interactions during this stage, will also determine whether the child’s sense of self develops toward an industry or inferiority direction. This is because these social interactions affect specific aspects of the child’s individual development. These aspects are also as follows:

Self-Concept - children develop this mental impression of self, based on social comparisons that can include appearance, abilities and behaviors that others exhibit toward them. An example of how this may be affecting Michelle is due to her poor relationship with her parents. This is because if she doesn’t feel excepted or loved, it may have left her with feelings of (inferiority).

Pride In Accomplishment - This is when a child will gain a sense of inner pride because he or she successfully completed a task and/or possesses a certain skill. However, this sense of pride may be undeveloped or never gained, if the child can’t successfully complete a certain task or does not possess a specific skill. Michelle might not feel this sense of accomplishment (industry) because her parents may never praise her for skills that she does develop (inferiority).

Moral Responsibility - This is determined by how a child is able to develop and choose to practice the difference between right and wrong. Michelle may not have developed (industry) because her parents choose drugs even when she has asked them to stop. Therefore, she may not be able to comprehend the difference between right and wrong, so she has developed inferiority.

Cooperative Participation - This sense of accomplishment occurs when a child feels good about being involved and offers individual contributions in a social situation. Michelle has made it clear that she is unable to work and accomplish certain tasks with her parents. They don’t listen to her in order to initiate positive changes (industry) and just ignore her desire to help them improve the overall family environment. Therefore, she may feel a sense of inferiority due the lack of power that is needed to initiate a better family life.

Current State

I also asked my client if she is trying to deal with or reduce her level of substance abuse on her own and she stated that she is not, because the drugs are everywhere. She feels like when she is at home, there will always be marijuana available. Her parents have also recently stated that since she turned 13, they will allow her to smoke it whenever she wants to. They are also aware of the fact that she has been selling heroin but feel like they’re too overwhelmed with personal issues to really focus on her problems. Michelle then stated that she feels bad for causing legal issues but at the same time, the ongoing poor relationship with her parents has made her feel like drugs are her only mental release and that her friend who sells heroin, is the only person who really cares about her. She has also stated that she recently started thinking about suicide a lot because she doesn’t want to live this life, if she won’t have parents who love her.

After listening to everything that my client has said, I’m am convinced that she not only suffered from abnormal development during middle age but is starting to process skewed cognitive thinking that is associated with the start of adolescence as well. According to (Dahl. 2004), it is essential, “not only to deepen our understanding of specific neurobiological changes during adolescent development, but also to broaden our knowledge of how behavioral, familial, and social influence interact, in multifaceted ways, with the development of the biological systems of interest” (p. 2). While, (Walker., Stephens., Neighbors., Rodriguez & Roffman. 2011), believe that “this is time in which individuals are particularly likely to engage in health-risk behaviors, with marijuana being the most prevalent illicit drug used. Perceptions of others' use (i.e., norms) have previously been found to be related to increased marijuana use. Additionally, low refusal self-efficacy has been associated with increased marijuana consumption” (p. 727). Not only can these things occur during this stage but (Esposito-Smythers, Kahler, Spirito, Hunt & Monti. 2011), believe that “alcohol and other drug use disorders (AOD) and suicidal behavior commonly co-occur among adolescent clinical populations” (p.728).

With this in mind, I believe that my client is using drugs because her social, biological, and psychosocial development has prevented her from developing a normal level of cognitive thinking. Therefore, I am confident that her level of substance abuse may be reduced if her negative sense of self can be increased via a proper treatment plan.

Suggested Interventions

In order to successfully treat these factors, I would implement intervention methods that may initiate growth with Michelle’s overall social, biological, and psychosocial development. Therefore, the first thing that should be addressed is my client’s claims of possible child neglect and/or endangerment which also may be causing her drug use. I believe this because according to (Shelton & Van Den Bree. 2010), “children from homes characterized by poor family functioning are at increased risk of drug initiation and drug use" (Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992). Parent-to-child hostility and an absence of warmth are associated with increased cigarette and alcohol use (Brody & Forehand, 1993; Melby, Conger, Conger, & Lorenz, 1993; Shelton et al., 2008). Substance use is argued to offer a means of coping with poor family functioning, but may also reflect increased affiliation with peers (who may themselves experiment with and use substances) to gain social support and a sense of belonging (Brody & Forehand, 1993; Melby et al., 1993). Parent–child relationships that are nonsupportive or characterized by conflict can also undermine adolescents’ ability to regulate their behavior in a goal-oriented way, with self-regulation linked to levels of alcohol use.

In order to address this issue in a professional manner, I would have to follow any ethical codes that concern the welfare of a child. Therefore, since this child’s cognitive development may be affected due to a lack of adequate parental care I would make a referral to Child Protective Services. This way, my client’s home environment would be investigated by proper authorities. The second thing that I would do is offer treatment that may decrease my client’s feelings of inferiority which may have occurred during middle childhood. This could be accomplished by having her parents referred to classes, which may teach them better skills to increase Michelle’s overall sense of self. Some techniques that may develop a positive sense of self involve offering the child continuous encouragement, praise, warmth, and love. 

When researching Piaget’s cognitive development theory, he believed that there are also several cognitive changes that occur during adolescence. One specific change concerns how they think about the relation between self and others, which is called imaginary audience. During this time, adolescents start to believe that they are the focus of everyone’s attention and overall concern in life. As a result, they will also become extremely self-conscious. A second change during the adolescent stage of development is called personal fable. This is when they become convinced that others are continuously thinking and observing them. During this time of overgrown perspective thinking, adolescents will also develop an inflated opinion of themselves because they think they are uniquely special. It’s like the world can’t touch them kind of thinking. When adolescents experience imaginary audience and personal fable, it can also affect their overall problem solving strategies and predictions of consequences.

Since, my client has reached adolescence and therefore, may be experiencing imaginary audience and personal fable I would offer her personalized treatment for this via weekly therapy sessions. I could also accomplish this by teaching her that she can be who she really is because others are not completely focused and/or concentrated on her. It’s also okay to have acne or other things that may cause insecurity because we all go through this stage and have these feelings from time to time. I would also be sure to address any specific concerns that may cause her reduced levels of self-confidence and self-worth. If I was going to educate my client about personal fable, I would show her videos about teens that died from overdosing on drugs, like heroine. I’m also confident that over time, Michelle may begin to change her cognitive development because she would start to understand that this risky behavior has real-life negative consequences.

A third thing that I would do to help my client reduce her urge to use drugs is refer her to a teen based substance abuse treatment program. This way she would be able to recovery with peers who are experiencing the same issue, while also building a strong support system.

Conclusion

Michelle is a 13 year old female who was referred to me by a local agency after a recent drug arrest. She also tested positive for heroin and marijuana. Although, she hasn’t received any prior treatment for substance abuse, she is unwilling to enter a court mandated treatment program. My client has stated that she won’t stop doing drugs and has no concern about what may happen. She also stated that she would rather kill herself then live the life she has now.

Therefore, one main goal of treatment would be to implement a plan that may reduce her current level of substance abuse. While, a second major problem that I would address is how her social, biological, and psychosocial development may have caused issues with her heightened level of inferiority. This distorted way of thinking may have also begun in middle childhood due to negative home and parental factors. Some of these include drug use by parents and their refusal to work with her to improve the overall family setting. They seem to also lack the ability to offer regular love and respect, which is needed to build a healthy parent/child relationship.

Currently, my client is also exhibiting developmental issues that may be associated with the onset of adolescence, which include a negative sense of self, risky behavior and thoughts of suicide. Some of these symptoms may also be associated with an unhealthy home environment, and due to peer pressures to fit in with friends who abuse and sell drugs. Therefore, I would address all of these issues by contacting CPS to investigate her home environment, recommending parenting classes, offering weekly therapy sessions via my office and referring her to a teen based substance abuse treatment program. Once all of these things are implemented, I am confident that this may reduce my client’s current level of substance abuse, while also developing a more positive sense of self.

 References:

L.E. Berk. (2010). Development through the lifespan. Boston, Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon.

Dahl, R.E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 1-22. Retrieved on June 15 2012 via the Kaplan Library.

Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Social Norms and Self-Efficacy Among Heavy Using Adolescent Marijuana Smokers. Walker, Denise D., Neighbors, Clayton, Rodriguez, Lindsey M., Stephens, Robert S., Roffman, Roger A. (2011) Vol. 25, No. 4, 727–732. Retrieved on June 17 2012 via the Kaplan Library.

Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology: Treatment of Co-Occurring Substance Abuse and Suicidality Among Adolescents: A Randomized Trial. Esposito-Smythers, C., Kahler, W, C., Spirito, A., Hunt, J., Monti, P.  (2011). Vol. 79, No. 6, 728–739. Retrieved on June 17 2012 via the Kaplan Library. 

Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Moderating Effects of Pubertal Timing on the Longitudinal Associations Between Parent–Child Relationship Quality and Adolescent Substance Use. Shelton, H. K., Van Den Bree, B, M. (2010). Vol. 20 No. 4, 1044-1064. Retrieved on June 18 2012 via the Kaplan Library.