THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDUCTIVE & DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

According to (Anderson. 2010), researchers have been “investigating brain areas involved in reasoning, and it suggests that people can bring different systems to bear on different reasoning problems” (p. 273). There are also two well-established logical methods of reasoning that have been identified which are known as inductive and deductive. Trying to understand these reasoning methods may be difficult because the differences between them are subtle. Therefore, I have also provided a more in depth description and examples of each method below:

Inductive Reasoning – This is a process of reasoning that involves the use of specific observations to reach a general theory or logical conclusion. It can be categorized into different types which include: statistical syllogism, simple induction, generalization, false analogy, and casual inference. An inductive argument is also evaluated based on whether it is strong or weak and there are many times when the conclusion will be false even when the specific observations are true. This is because the conclusion is based on an individual’s educated prediction and/or bias thinking. Specific bias thinking that may occur with this type of reasoning could be confirmation bias, availability heuristic, and the predictable world bias.

Furthermore, when the specific observations that are used to acquire the conclusion are false, the argument will be considered “unsound.” Three examples of an inductive argument can also be as follows:

Example #1 – 100% of life forms on earth need water to survive. Since this is the case, if a new planet is discovered, then that life form will probably also need water to survive.

Example #2 – The neighbor’s dog has a high pitched bark. I hear a high pitched bark outside, so the neighbor’s dog must be barking.

Example #3 – Every time I eat dairy products, I get cramps in my stomach. Therefore I must get cramps in my stomach because I eat dairy products.

Deductive Reasoning – This is a process of reasoning that involves the use of a theory or general statements to reach a specific logical conclusion. A deductive argument is evaluated based on its overall level of validity and soundness. Since, this is the case there are times when a deductive argument may be considered valid but unsound. For example, when a specific conclusion is true, the argument may be valid, even though the general statements that were used are false. Since, a deductive argument is based on individual emotion and belief, there are also many times when it may contain a certain level of bias thinking. 

One example of bias thinking that can occur is when there may be differences in beliefs among varying cultures. Therefore, a deductive argument will only be considered sound if it is both valid and the general statements are true. Three examples of a deductive argument can also be as follows: 

Example #1 – All bachelors in the world are single. Joe is single. Joe is a bachelor.

Example #2 – The members of the Johnston family include Becky, Arnold and Larry. Becky is overweight. Arnold is overweight. Larry is overweight. Therefore, all members of the Johnston family are overweight.

Example #3 – Each day, I drive to work. This takes one hour. My job starts at nine o' clock in the morning. Therefore, if I leave at eight o' clock in the morning, I will get to work on time.

Reference:

Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY.  

HOW TO TREAT ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) (THE EXAMPLE CASE OF 8 YEAR OLD CHANTEL)

            According to (Hunt, Marshall, 2005), “attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that affects an individual’s ability to attend or focus on tasks and that may involve high levels of motoric activity. Between 3 and 5 percent of children in the United States are identified as having ADHD” (p. 256). Research has shown that many of these children are also diagnosed with a learning disability or possible conduct-related behavioral disorder. As a child development specialist, my current goal is to assist a young girl who has recently been diagnosed with ADHD. In order to successfully accomplish this goal, I will need to design an in-depth step-by-step treatment process. These steps will also be addressed within two written sections which are as follows:

1. Part I: Analysis

2. Part II: Intervention

PART I: ANALYSIS

             8 year old Chantel has recently been diagnosed with ADHD. She is exhibiting specified behavioral issues which may be devastating to her overall growth, functioning, and development. These issues are also affecting 5 specific domains which include cognitive, social/emotional, and physical, along with her home and school environments. Some of the specific issues within each domain are as follows: Chantel’s cognitive issues are hyperactivity, lack of focus, forgetfulness and/or poor memory skills. She may be experiencing social/emotional issues due to exile from fellow classmates. This constant isolation could also be causing inner feelings of inadequacy, loneliness and despair. Chantel’s major physical issue is that she’s sometimes aggressive toward classmates and does occasionally use excessive force. If this continues then she may eventually harm herself, a teacher, fellow classmate, family member or animal. It is also possible that she may be physically acting out in an attempt to communicate or manipulate an environment that she doesn’t fully understand. Although this is a major source of concern, she is also a fast runner, who is physically flexible, strong and athletic. Since she possesses these physical attributes, her peers usually pick her first in gym class. She is also experiencing issues within her home environment. Her parents have expressed a major concern about her level of hyperactivity, forgetfulness, impulsive behavior, late poor quality work, history with behavioral incidents, scapegoating occurrences and lack of social skill.

How Do These Behavioral Issues Affect Chantel’s School Environment?

Since, cognitive, social/emotional, physical and home environmental issues are occurring I believe that they are drastically affecting Chantel’s overall performance at school. Some of these issues may also coincide with her parent’s concerns, along with unique school related issues. These include difficulty retaining or remembering information, completing tasks, unsatisfactory work and some physical altercations with fellow classmates. She is also required to complete the same grade curriculum and time frames as “normal” peers who don’t have ADHD.

PART II: INTERVENTION

            Since several issues are present, implementing an intervention plan will be the next important step during this process. This step will also give me the opportunity to implement a treatment plan which is specifically designed to assist Chantel. The intervention plan that I have designed for Chantel is also “based on the principles of applied behavioral analysis; these programs involve the systematic instruction of discreet skills” (Hunt, Marshall, 2005. p. 309). An individualized ABA program plan is normally implemented to modify behaviors that may be viewed as undesirable to the client and/or society. There are also many cases when the undesirable behaviors are actually due to underlying symptoms of a disability, like ADHD. Since this is one of those cases, I have designed a 3 step process plan for Chantel, which includes early intervention, implementing specific techniques, and measuring and monitoring. This overall plan has also been designed to identify how to properly assist Chantel based on her individual needs and can be viewed below:

STEP 1. EARLY INTERVENTION

This first step is a key factor in order to properly assess and treat Chantel’s actual behavioral issues. This initial assessment is also when I will decide which techniques should be used to address the behaviors that are causing major distress.

STEP 2. IMPLEMENTING SPECIFIC TECHNIQUES

The second step is to implement techniques which can modify behaviors that are affecting specific domains. These 5 domains and recommended techniques are as follows:

Cognitive – She is experiencing hyperactivity, lack of focus, forgetfulness and/or poor memory skills within this area. Techniques that I can use which may improve cognitive development are individualized instruction programs and strategies. These can include a self management program and assistive technology.

Social/Emotional – Chantel wants to play with other children but she lacks proper social skill. Therefore, she will need techniques that build and/or develop these valuable skills. Once this process is completed, Chantel may also be able to interact with family members, teachers, and peers on a much healthier social and emotional level. Two techniques that I can use to help her develop these skills are implementation of monitored play dates and child counseling sessions. 
Physical - It‘s crucial that I provide a plan which can reduce Chantel’s desire to be aggressive. The techniques to address this issue will also first be implemented within her school environment.  

Home Environment – When a child is diagnosed with a behavioral disorder, this can cause many feelings within the family. Some of these include stress, guilt, helplessness and anger. It is important to implement techniques which will foster a positive and supportive home environment, while eliminating some of these family emotions. Chantel’s parents also revealing some of these feelings due to her ADHD. It is important that we support these concerns by keeping her parents informed through every step of the implementation/treatment process. They must also be informed about any plan changes or modifications so they can support and practice treatment consistency. If this is completed, then the level of stress and other feelings may decrease over time. Two techniques that I can implement which may initiate family support and consistency are effective communication skills and appropriate family intervention classes.

School Environment – Chantel needs comprehensive processes that may improve her issues with late homework, problems retraining or remembering information, unsatisfactory or incomplete work. She also tries to complete the same curriculum and time frames as “normal” peers even though she has ADHD. Below, there are 4 techniques that may address each one of these issues:

1. Proper Assessment - I will recommend that Chantel is immediately assessed by the appropriate staff members. This will determine if she should be completing the same curriculum as normally developed peers. If she is diagnosed with a learning disability due to her ADHD, then she may benefit greatly, from assistive technology or special education classes.

2. Weekly Reporting - The second technique that I will implement to address and/or modify these behaviors while at school is the addition of weekly reporting. Weekly reports can be used as a way to record how many issues occur and the details of each event. This process can also generate valuable information that may help with her treatment plan and possibly prevent any scapegoating issues that her parents are concerned about. 

3. Behavior Chaining/Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior - The third technique that I will recommend is the implementation of behavior chaining. According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward, p. 435), “a behavior chain is a sequence of discrete responses, each associated with a particular stimulus condition. Each discrete response and the associated stimulus condition serve as an individual component of the chain. When individual components are linked together, the result is a behavior chain that produces a terminal outcome.”

Since, Chantel has ADHD she may require a world which is extremely routine and/ or structured. I believe that if she could slowly learn different chains of desirable behavior, she will begin to perform these rituals on a regular and permanent basis. Behavior chaining can also be conducted on a single individual our within a group setting. An alternate procedure that could also be used in Chantel’s classroom and recess settings is known as Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior. According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward), this procedure “reinforces occurrences of behavior that provides a desirable alternative to the problem behavior but is not necessarily incompatible with it” (p. 471). An example of this process is as follows:

“When an incident begins to occur, the teacher will tell Chantel that it is unacceptable behavior. The teacher will than re-direct Chantel to hug her friend instead, and then go swing together.”

4. Parent/Teacher Conferences – I will also implement weekly parent/teacher conferences as a required technique. This will offer an opportunity to disclose all results or details which are pertinent to her treatment plan. These will include the weekly report and other factors. 

STEP 3. MEASURING AND MONITORING

This final step can be very exciting after implementing a program plan! This is because information will be shared which can determine if the implemented program plan and/or techniques are beneficial to Chantel’s treatment process. These results will also be gathered through weekly reports that identify any new behavioral changes or other issues.

CONCLUSION

               As stated in my initial introduction, according to (Hunt, Marshall, 2005), "attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that affects an individual’s ability to attend or focus on tasks and that may involve high levels of motoric activity. Between 3 and 5 percent of children in the United States are identified as having ADHD” (p. 256). Research has shown that many of these children are also diagnosed with a learning disability or possible conduct-related behavioral disorder.

As a child development specialist, my initial goal was to assist 8 year old Chantel, who has recently been diagnosed with ADHD. She was also exhibiting behaviors within 5 specific domains. In order to successfully accomplish this goal, I chose to address these behaviors within two specific sections. These included a lengthy analysis of observable details and creation of a final intervention and treatment plan.

I am confident that this overall process would modify some of Chantel’s undesirable behaviors. This is because my plan included the use of techniques that are based on principles of ABA to strengthen development within specified areas. The major domains of concern for Chantel’s case were cognitive, social/emotional, physical, and home and school environments. Some of my chosen techniques to modify behavior within these domains were the implementation of behavior chaining, differential alternative reinforcement, mandatory parent/teacher conferences, and parental communication to ensure plan consistency. The results of Chantel’s intervention and treatment plan would also be closely measured and monitored through weekly reporting. These results would also keep her “intervention/treatment team” informed about any new behavioral changes or other concerns. One example of this would be results that show where her undesirable aggressive behavior has been modified through “Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior” to reflect desirable hugging behavior!

     

REFERENCES:

Hunt, N., & Marshall, K. (2005). Exceptional children and youth (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2^nd ed). New Jersey: The Lehigh Press, Inc.

HOW ANXIETY, OBSESSIONS & COMPULSIONS RELATE TO OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD)

     

            Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder also known as (OCD) occurs due to causes associated with genetics, brain physiology, childhood experience, and other environmental factors. Previous research has also provided evidence that supports a direct relationship between anxiety, obsessions and compulsions among those who have this disorder. This is because these factors appear to interact in the following way:

Obsessions occur when an individual repeatedly experiences uncontrollable obtrusive and unwanted thoughts or distressing images. Some examples of common obsessions may include excessive thoughts about contaminating or harming one’s self or others and forbidden or socially unacceptable sexual imagery. These thoughts can than lead to uncomfortable feelings of disgust, doubt, guilt or fear. The individual will then begin to experience an excessive level of anxiety due to not being able to control the thoughts, images and/or negative feelings from occurring. This will then lead the individual to believe that things should be done a certain way in order to prevent these thoughts, images and feelings from occurring. Eventually, the individual will feel uncontrollably driven to perform these things in a certain way and exhibit compulsive behavior/s. Some common compulsive behaviors that may also occur can include but are not limited to: repeatedly checking locks, washing hands, hoarding, silent prayer, or repeating certain words and phrases. 

When considering treatment options for OCD, some professionals use a technique that is known as "exposure and response prevention." According to (Butcher., Mineka., & Hooley. 2010), this is because “a behavioral treatment that combines exposure and response prevention seems to be the most effective approach to treating obsessive-compulsive disorders” (p. 212). This process also involves asking the client to design a hierarchy of upsetting stimuli that evokes distress, disgust or anxiety and is based on a scale from 0 to 100. However, after researching further information about this particular treatment technique, I do not believe that it should be used with clients if they are also taking an anti-anxiety medication. This is because that particular medication may reduce the overall level of distress, disgust and/or anxiety that would normally be measured when addressing the upsetting stimuli. Furthermore, the client also won’t get the opportunity to learn a new way of cognitive thinking and beneficial coping skills that can be used to address these issues properly. Therefore, since the results may be inaccurate and/or unreliable, the client will not receive treatment for OCD that may be best for his or her overall mental health needs.

Reference:

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th Ed.). Boston, MA. Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Higher Education.

WHY PUNISHMENT MAY NOT ALWAYS WORK (THE EXAMPLE CASE OF 5 YEAR OLD BEN)

     For several years, researchers have been trying to determine whether certain consequences of behavior will have a positive or negative effect on overall learning. One particular case where this may be questioned concerns a 5 year old boy named Ben who was spanked after he was caught stealing from a store. After reviewing the details of this case, I do not agree that the consequence of spanking will teach this child that the behavior is wrong. This is because there are several other negative issues that can occur when using this method to shape behavior. Many of these may also have devastating effects on the quality of Ben’s overall psychological well-being. Therefore, the overall purpose of this paper will be to further discuss this issue by addressing the following two questions:

1. What could Ben learn from this punishment and why is it incompatible for the behavior?

2. What learning model and/or theory best provides supportive evidence for my position?

What could Ben learn from this punishment and why is it incompatible for the behavior?

     According to (Chance. 2009) “observational learning may be defined as a change in behavior due to the experience of observing a model” (p. 276). Many believe that this type of learning can occur within several different areas of our lives even without a model. When conducting observational learning, there are also two basic procedures that may be used during the process. The first process is called vicarious reinforcement and this is when an observer will see a model’s behavior produce reinforcement. While, the second process is called vicarious punishment and this is when an observer will see a model’s behavior get punished. 

Although, both of these procedures may acquire different results, they can still be responsible for shaping an observers behavior. Since, this is the case many may also question how an observer’s behavior can be shaped when using the procedures of observational learning. For instance, in Ben’s case, it was suggested that the model (his trusted caretaker) should use vicarious punishment to acquire the desired behavior of learning that stealing is wrong. However, I believe that vicarious punishment is an incompatible procedure to use in this case. One reason for this is because the punishment may be so psychologically and/or physically traumatizing that Ben will remember that, over the behavior that his caretaker was trying to shape. If this is the case, then there is a smaller chance that the desired behavior will be repeated in the future. A second reason that I do not think that spanking should be used is because that particular punishment may cause Ben to develop several psychological issues. Some of these may include low self-esteem, low self-worth, anxiety, depression, a desire for isolation, mistrust in others and/or, one specific social model learning behavior known as “Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Aggressive Models” (Chance. 2009).

What learning model and/or theory best provides supportive evidence for my position?

     Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models can occur when an observer learns and imitates an aggressive behavior that was initially taught via a respected model. One specific theory that supports this idea is Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory. In one particular experiment, he placed a group of young children in different scenarios with an adult and a doll. In the first part of the experiment, the children observed an adult spanking, yelling at and tossing the doll. In the second part of the experiment, a different group of children observed the adult playing with the doll in a non-violent manner. However, in the last part of the experiment, a third group of children observed no abuse or positive play among the adult and doll. The outcome of this overall experiment showed that only those children who observed aggressive behavior toward the doll became aggressive toward it themselves. Therefore, the results indicated that aggressive behaviors can be learned by direct observation through a model. In this case, the children also learned that the adult never received punishment for exhibiting aggressive behavior, so this may have encouraged them to exhibit the same undesirable behavior (Chance. 2009).

When considering this particular theory, Bandura also believed that observational learning may only occur when four specific factors are included. These are as follows:

1. The observer must give attention to the behavior - In Ben’s case there is a good chance that he will give full attention to the behavior because spanking is a painful physical punishment. Furthermore, he may be more attentive to this behavior because it could also cause major psychological distress during the overall process. 

2. The observer can retain the behavior that the model exhibited - If Ben can remember how the model completed the behavior of spanking, than it will be easier for him to imitate this at a later time. When considering spanking as a punishment, it may also be very easy to remember because the behavior is simple compared to other punishments that may be more complex.

3. The observer must have the motor skills required to carry out the models behavior - This is very important because it can greatly determine who might imitate certain behavior and who will not. In this case, if Ben has the cognitive ability to understand and process the behavior of spanking, then he will be able to carry out this punishment in the future.

4. The observer must possess the motivation needed to exhibit the models behavior - In this case, if Ben’s caretaker spanks him and he observes no negative consequence for her behavior, then he may begin to view it as acceptable and/or desired behavior. This skewed cognitive thinking may lead him to believe that punishment like spanking is acceptable reinforcement to use with his own children. If this occurs, he may then become motivated to try and shape their behavior by using spanking as a punishment. In this case, he will also initiate the next cycle of generational abuse and his children may experience similar psychological and/or physical issues.

Conclusion

     For many years, researchers have been studying how using punishment as reinforcement can have both positive and negative effects when used to shape behavior. After reviewing the case involving a five-year-old boy named Ben, I stated that I do not agree that spanking may be the best punishment technique to use in this case. One main reason for this belief is because when using this punishment, it may not shape Ben’s behavior to learn that stealing is wrong and could cause several different psychological issues during the overall process. These could include low self-esteem, low self-worth, anxiety, depression, a desire for isolation, mistrust in others.

A second thing that Ben could learn through this reinforcement procedure is aggression. Since, this is the case I also discussed one specific social model learning behavior known as “Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of Aggressive Models. This theory explains and supports the idea that Ben could end up learning the aggressive behavior of spanking through direct observation of his respected model. I also provided supportive evidence of this by discussing a specific experiment that was conducted by Bandura. He analyzed a group of children and confirmed that they will repeat or imitate aggressive behaviors after direct observation of a model. Therefore, if this happens to Ben and these issues are not addressed accordingly they may greatly reduce the quality of Ben’s overall level of psychological well-being. He may also repeat this course of punishment to shape behavior within his own family environment in the future.   

Reference:

Chance, P. (2009). Learning and behavior. (6 ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

UNDERSTANDING ADOLESCENCE & SUBSTANCE ABUSE

                 According to (Berk. 2010), adolescence is defined as [the transition between childhood and adulthood that begins with puberty. It involves accepting one’s full-grown body, acquiring adult ways of thinking, attaining greater independence from one’s family, developing more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes, and beginning to construct an identity] (p. 361). There are also several issues that can hinder normal cognitive development among adolescents during this stage. One specific problem is due to alcohol and/or drug use. This is because when adolescents choose to use these substances, the side-affects can prevent further development with adult thinking, independence, maturity and overall self-identity. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to further discuss why and how substance abuse can affect adolescents during this crucial stage of development. I will also complete this, by addressing these questions:

1. What influential factors can cause adolescents to develop substance abuse problems?

2. What common risk factors do adolescents who develop addictive disorders face?

3. How is an adolescent’s self-identity affected by addiction?

4. What interventions may reduce the risk of alcohol and drug use during adolescence?

What influential factors can cause adolescents to develop substance abuse problems?

     During adolescence, there are numerous biological, social and environmental factors that can initiate a heightened desire to use alcohol and/or drugs. According, to (Shelton, Van Den Bree. 2010), “children from homes characterized by poor family functioning are at increased risk of drug initiation” (p. 1045). Other factors that may cause this destructive behavior are when adolescents view themselves as unworthy, when there is an unhealthy parent/child relationship, when there is a lack of emotional support within the home, or when they want to gain social support and a sense of belonging. When adolescents develop substance abuse problems, they may also face different risk factors associated with their psychological and/or physical health.

What common risk factors do adolescents who develop addictive disorders face?

     According to (Walker., Stephens., Neighbors., Rodriguez., Roffman. 2011), adolescence is a time in which individuals are particularly likely to engage in health-risk behaviors, with marijuana being the most prevalent illicit drug used” (p. 727). If adolescents become addicted to marijuana, alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, prescription pills or some other illegal or non-prescribed substance, they can face several different risk factors. Eleven specific factors which may be associated with addictive disorders also include:

1. Onset of symptoms due to mild/severe anxiety

2. Onset of symptoms due to mild/severe depression
3. Onset of symptoms due to mild/severe psychosis
4. An increased chance of becoming homeless due to stress placed on family members
5. A possible increase in criminal activity, arrests, and/or forced rehabilitation
6. Unplanned pregnancy and/or unwanted children due to unprotected sexual activity
7. May contract one or more sexually transmitted diseases
8. Need in/outpatient psychiatric service due to anxiety, depression or psychosis
9. More emergency room visits than adolescents who do not develop addictive disorders
10. Premature death due to overdose, heart attack, stroke or other health related problems
11. According to (Esposito-Smythers, Kahler, Spirito, Hunt, Monti. 2011), “alcohol and other drug use disorders (AOD) and suicidal behavior commonly co-occur among adolescent clinical populations” (p. 728).

How is an adolescent’s self-identity affected by addiction?

     Several of the risk factors that are associated with addictive disorders, can also have a detrimental effect on the overall development of self-identity. According to Piaget’s cognitive development theory, this cognitive change occurs during the crucial stage of adolescence. During this overall process, adolescents may become more concerned about relationships between self and others which is called imaginary audience. When this occurs, the adolescents will start to believe that they are the focus of everyone’s attention and concern in life. They will then become extremely self-conscious because they feel like the whole world is negatively judging every aspect of their lives. As a result, adolescents may have difficulty solving problems because they will worry about being criticized or not fitting in with the people that are focused on them. During this time, if they are criticized or treated in a negative manner, they will believe that it is because they’re not good enough or worth as much as everyone else. Adolescents will also become reliant on the opinions of people when building their individual levels of self-esteem, social support and peer acceptance. This means that they may have an extreme need to value emotional ties with people because all these relationships will be responsible for establishing their overall sense of self. A second cognitive change that occurs during adolescence is called personal fable. This is when they become convinced that others are continuously thinking and observing them in a positive manner. During this time of overgrown perspective thinking, adolescents will also develop an inflated opinion of themselves because they think that they are unique or special. It’s basically like they become convinced that the world can’t touch them. Therefore, during this stage of development, they may be willing to take more risks because they’ll believe that they are above normal rules and consequences. If this distorted way of thinking leads to addictive disorders, it can also prevent adolescents from developing an accurate or healthy sense of self-identity. This is because the effects from alcohol or drugs may only increase existing thoughts of low self-worth, a need to fit in, an inflated ego, or symptoms associated with anxiety, depression and psychosis. Therefore, adolescents will lose their ability to acquire normal cognitive skills that are needed to develop a healthy self-identity. This is also why it’s important to educate them about the risks of substance abuse, prior to use.

What interventions may reduce the risk of alcohol and drug use during adolescence?

     There are several intervention techniques that can used to educate adolescents about the risks involved with substance abuse. One specific method that can be implemented during the initial stages of assistance is talk therapy. This can consist of one-on-one therapy or in a group setting. This intervention method can also offer the opportunity to identify specific factors that may be causing a desire to use among some of the adolescents. If I determined that some of these individuals were experiencing issues with low self-esteem or confidence, I could help them understand that they can be who they are because others are not completely focused and/or concentrated on them. It’s also okay to have acne or other things that may cause insecurity because we all go through this stage and have these normal feelings from time to time. A second intervention technique that can be used to educate adolescents about the risks involved with substance abuse is to host weekly seminars. During this time, I would teach the adolescents about things like unwanted teen pregnancies, acquiring AIDS from unprotected sex and dying young from overdose. I would also choose specific kids that were recommended via the school guidance counselor, principal or psychologist. This is because some of these adolescents may already be showing symptoms of imaginary audience and/or personal fable. Therefore, the seminars may help them see that their current way of irrational thinking and/or perspective does have real-life negative consequences. However, they would still have time to change this way of destructive thinking, before they end up experiencing one or more of these consequences. A third intervention technique that I could use is to educate the parents of adolescence. I could do this by also hosting seminars for parents only. During these seminars I could provide the same information via videos and statistical data but also hand out pamphlets with contact information for local substance abuse agencies. 

Summary

     The purpose of this paper was to address why and how different environmental issues can hinder normal cognitive development among adolescents. One major issue that can cause this lack of development is when adolescents decide to use alcohol and/or drugs during this stage. This is because the side-affects may prevent further development associated with adult thinking, independence, maturity and overall self-identity. I also discussed, further influential factors that can cause adolescents to develop substance abuse problems, common risk factors they may face when developing addictive disorders, how their self-identity is affected by addiction, and what interventions may reduce the risk of alcohol and drug use during this stage of development.

References:

Berk, L.E. (2010). Development through the lifespan. Boston, Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon.

Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 1-22. Retrieved on May 28 2012 via the Kaplan Library.

Walker, D. D., Neighbors, Clayton, Rodriguez, L. M., Stephens, R. S., Roffman, R. A. (2011). Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Social norms and self-efficacy among heavy using adolescent marijuana smokers. Retrieved on May 30 2012 via the Kaplan Library.

Esposito-Smythers, C., Kahler, W. C., Spirito, A., Hunt, J., Monti, P.  (2011). Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology: Treatment of Co-Occurring Substance Abuse and Suicidality Among Adolescents: A Randomized Trial. Retrieved on May 30 2012 via the Kaplan Library.

 

Shelton, H. K., Van Den Bree, B. M. (2010). Journal of Research on Adolescence: The moderating effects of pubertal timing on the longitudinal associations between parent–child relationship quality and adolescent substance use. Retrieved on May 31 2012 via the Kaplan Library.  

HOW TO HELP EXCEPTIONAL NEEDS CHILDREN (THE EXAMPLE CASE STUDY OF MICHAEL)

My current client is 5 years old and his name is Michael. He suffers from hearing loss along with a speech disorder which he is receiving current therapy for. Although, his speech disorder is being addressed, he still has an issue with premature social skills. His parents have also asked me to design an intervention plan which will offer positive growth within this area of development.

According to (Kaplan’s Unit 1 Key Concepts), “children who are physically disabled often need intervention plans. These plans specifically suggest a schedule of developmental markers and required services. Intervention plans are used as a tool to measure how successful particular interventions are and provide valuable feedback for the child and parent” (p. 1). In order to devise a successful intervention plan for Michael, I will first need to determine why his lack of social development may exist. Once this is identified, I will then need to decide what specific techniques may work best in order to help Michael further develop these skills. Therefore, I will build this intervention plan by also addressing these five questions:

1. Why is Michael unable to make friends?
2. How might his disabilities be interfering with social development?
3. How can I assist him with a plan that addresses both immediate and long term goals?
4. How can his parents assist him with this issue?
5. How can his future kindergarten teacher assist him with this issue?

Why is Michael unable to make friends?

Michael’s parents have disclosed that he is an only child who doesn’t play with neighborhood children. He has been exposed to occasional play dates but is unable to effectively communicate with the other children during these times, so his parents rarely set them up now. They have also not enrolled him in school due to this issue. After considering these factors, my initial hypothesis is that Michael may be too isolated and therefore he lacks the level of social interaction that is needed to successfully develop this skill in a healthy manner.

How might his disabilities be interfering with social development?

Michael may also find it difficult to make friends or interact socially due to lack of proper communication. Since, he is hearing impaired and suffers with a speech disorder, it will be very difficult for him, to understand or comprehend his peers. He may also experience a certain level of ridicule and/or rejection by other children due to these factors.

How can I assist him with a plan that addresses both immediate and long term goals?

Early Intervention is the first key factor in order to properly diagnose and assess a child’s existing physical, cognitive and language skills. This can also make a huge difference when it comes to the child’s future overall level of physical and psychological development. Therefore, based on my diagnostic results, I will begin assisting Michael by enrolling him in a regular weekly play therapy group with other children who have exceptional needs. This is because I’m confident that this will build his short and long term level of social skills by offering four major advantages. These are as follows:

1. He will get to interact with other children who have hearing loss and/or speech disorder.
2. The learning environment is specifically designed to aide and assist hearing impaired children.
3. Child Development Specialists will have the opportunity to teach Michael communication techniques, like sign language and lip reading.
4. I will also ensure that bi-weekly reports are provided to both the parents and future teacher. 

How can his parents assist him with this issue?

Since, his parents want to offer the best possible opportunity to develop adequate social skills he will need a way to properly communicate. Therefore, I will highly recommend that they take Michael to a hearing specialist so he can acquire hearing aids. This is because these tools may amplify any hearing that he currently still has while also offering a new and exciting experience! 

Along with this, I will also recommend that both parents enroll in a sign language class because it may give all family members an easier way to communicate. One other valuable strategy that I will implement is to recommend that his parents become involved with Michael’s future Kindergarten Teacher before he begins school. This is because previous research has shown that exceptional needs children seem to improve when they experience a thriving social structure of positive support and growth.

How can his future kindergarten teacher assist him with this issue?

According to (Hunt, Marshall, 2005), [in the past, the diverse educational needs of children with physical disabilities and health impairments often kept them away from public education. Today’s teachers need to know, however, that in most cases, these children can be part of the regular class with accommodations and support] (p. 449). There are also strategies which can be used in order to offer these children normal educational opportunities and development in reading, writing, and thinking skills. Specific strategies may also include federal requirements which must be followed when assisting children with exceptional physical and/or psychological needs. Some of these strategies include:

1. Educational Planning - It is a teacher’s responsibility and federal requirement to ensure that yearly assessments of these children are conducted. This ensures that the children will receive the individual services which are needed. This not only includes children who have current disabilities upon initial enrollment, but also those who show signs of disabilities at a later stage.

2. Accessing Instruction - In 1990, the federal government enacted the Americans with Disabilities Act. This ensures that all of these children have access to public facilities (bathroom) and buildings (school). This act also requires proper placement of equipment and/or furniture within the classroom setting. Not only does this act ensure proper access, but it also requires teachers to provide physical support to children who have exceptional needs. This can include offering help with breathing equipment, feeding and physical movement of the child. This process is also known as physical handling and health maintenance.

3. Integrating Technology - This involves continuous evaluation and/or assessment of a child in order to offer the most appropriate medical and/or educational service/s. These educational services are also most commonly known as assistive technology or special education classes.

Conclusion

My 5 year old client named Michael suffers from hearing loss along with a speech disorder which he is receiving current therapy for. Although, he still has an issue with premature social skills and his parents have requested that I design an intervention plan which will offer positive growth within this area of his development. Therefore, this plan will be accomplished by concentration within five specific areas. These include questioning and addressing why Michael is currently unable to make friends, how his disabilities are interfering with social development, what I can do that addresses long and short term goals for improvement, how his parents can help and what services his future kindergarten teacher can provide. I am also confident that if we work together as a collaborative team to accomplish the goals which are set forth in this plan, than Michaels’s level of social maturity and/or skill should begin to increase at a dramatic level.

References:

Hunt, N., & Marshall, K. (2005). Exceptional children and youth (4th ed.). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth.

Kaplan University (2011). Unit 1. Key Concepts. Retrieved on March 3 2011 via the Kaplan Online Campus at http://content-asc.kaplan.edu.edgesuite.net/

ADDRESSING APPLIED BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS (EXAMPLE CASE STUDIES OF BOBBY, JACKIE & EMMA)

     Human behavior is something that an Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) Specialist or other professional may want to change because certain aspects are considered undesirable within normal society. Changing undesirable behaviors through ABA is also used in several situations that can include individual or group settings. Some examples of where this may apply are within a single home environment, school system, public agency, prison, or rehabilitation center. Therefore, my goal for this paper will be to review 3 individual case studies, by examining different components that are associated with of ABA. These are also as follows: 

• Case 1 involves Bobby and I will discuss Target Behavior, Operant Conditioning, Positive Reinforcement, and Schedules of Reinforcement.
• Case 2 involves Jackie and I will discuss Behavioral Theory and Selected Modification Program.
• Case 3 involves Emma and I will discuss Principles of Operant Conditioning, Application of that Theory, and Extinction.

The reason that different areas of applied behavior analysis will be addressed is also because behavior modification processes and/or techniques are usually determined, based on each individual case.

Case 1: Bobby

     Bobby Kelly’s bedroom is always unorganized and extremely messy. His father would like to create a process which encourages Bobby, to clean his room on a regular basis. In the next two sections, I will identify the target behavior and recommend a modification program which may initiate his father’s desired behavior.

Identify the Target Behavior

According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007), “a good definition of a target behavior provides an accurate, complete, and concise description of the behavior to be changed (and therefore measured)” (p. 67). After reviewing the above case, the target behavior is that Bobby’s bedroom is always unorganized and extremely messy. This behavior is causing his father emotional stress, so he would like to modify or improve this situation as soon as possible. Therefore, I will design a modification plan using operant conditioning. This process may then offer the positive desired behavior (cleans room frequently) that his father wants.

Definition of Operant Conditioning

According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007), “operant conditioning refers to the process and selective effects of consequences on behavior” (p. 33). This method works to increase desired behavior by implementing stimulus changes which may initiate a positive and/or desired response. One example is if Bobby started to clean his room because he just got a new game and needed floor space.

Definition of Positive Reinforcement

Most of the time, applied behavioral analysts will use continuous reinforcement during the first stages of behavior modification. Positive reinforcement occurs when a desired response occurs shortly after a specific stimulus is introduced. There can also be certain issues involved when selecting appropriate and effective reinforcements. Two of these might include the motivational level of each participant and ensuring age appropriate reinforcers. One example of an inappropriate reinforcement would be giving a baby rattle to a teenager like Bobby as reward.

Two Possible Schedules of Reinforcement

According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007), “a schedule of reinforcement is a rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement, those environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will produce reinforcement” (p. 305). Two possible schedules of reinforcement along with the case implementation, advantages, and disadvantages are as follows:

1. Fixed Schedule - When using this reinforcement technique, the time requirement will always remain constant and/or the same. This schedule of reinforcement process could be implemented as a way to acquire the desired behavior for the above case (cleans room frequently). I would implement this process by telling Bobby that he will get $5.00 for each night his room is cleaned by 7:00 pm. Two advantages of this process are that it can produce faster rates of desired response and maximize the delivery rate of the selected reinforcement. Two possible disadvantages are that if ratio requirements become too large then the rate of response may decrease and this can also produce postreinforcement pause.

2. Variable Schedule - This requires a varying and undisclosed number of responses before the participant will receive a desired reinforcement. This process could also be implemented as a way to acquire the desired behavior for the above case (cleans room

regularly). I would implement this process by telling Bobby that if he cleaned his room on a regular basis, then “on occasion he would get $20.00 to go to the mall. Two advantages of this process are that it can produce a steady rate of response and does not produce postreinforcement pause. One disadvantage is that it’s rarely implemented with any type of planned or systematic approach.

Case 2: Jackie

     Jackie acquired a fear of dogs after being bit at 3 years of age. The injury also required several stitches. It has been twenty years since this incident but Jackie still remembers every detail of the event. The trauma associated with this incident has caused severe psychological distress to the point that she cannot be around or even see a dog. If this does occur, she suddenly experiences heart palpitations and nausea. Since the initial incident she has spent her life simply avoiding dogs but will soon marry a breeder. Jackie has come to seek assistance for this fear before her marriage takes place in 6 months.

Selected Behavioral Theory

ABA professionals normally use certain principles when attempting to modify socially significant behavior that is causing extreme distress within the client’s life. There are also several theories which may be used in order to determine behavior and what modification program may work best to alter these. One specific theory that could explain why Jackie has carried this lifelong fear of dogs is due to negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement can be defined as a termination or removal of a certain stimulus which may lead to a specific response. This can occur if one wishes to change what he or she may personally or socially view as undesirable behavior. In this case, Jackie views dogs as the stimulus that will cause a painful undesired response (biting injury).

Selected Behavior Modification Program

According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward), “applied behavioral analysts use continuous reinforcement during the initial stages of learning and for strengthening behavior” (p. 323). One particular modification process which I would use to help Jackie is called classical conditioning.

The principles of this theory are often used to treat people who suffer from fears and/or phobias. I would perform this process by advising Jackie to meet a dog while offering it a steak bone. I would also train the dog to lick Jackie after the steak bone was received. I would then repeat this process at least 3 times a week until the dog became familiar and/or friendly with Jackie. Over time, the dog would teach Jackie that they are not all going to cause her a severe bite injury.

Case 3: Emma

     A 4 year old named Emma refuses to clean her room even if offered a reward or receiving time out. When it is time to clean up, Emma simply shows anger and throws a temper tantrum. These outbursts include screaming, yelling and throwing toys. On several occasions, her parents have picked her up during these outbursts and choose to clean the room themselves.

Identified Principles of Operant Conditioning

The underlying principles of operant conditioning that may be causing Emma's behavior are that her parents pick up her when she is throwing a tantrum and they clean the room themselves. This has taught Emma that if she exhibits this behavior then she will be rewarded with love and won’t have to clean her room because the parents will do it.

Application of Operant Conditioning Theory 

 I could also apply the operant conditioning theory to create a behavior modification program which may change Emma's undesirable behavior. This would involve a process which replaces the parent’s actions of picking her up and cleaning the room by themselves. One example could be to tell her that it is okay and they will pick her up when the room is clean. They could also praise her during every step of the cleaning process while she completes this task on her own. 

Extinction

According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward), “a procedure occurs when reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued; as a result, the frequency of that behavior decreases in the future” (p. 457). In applied behavioral analysis, this is known as extinction. Certain procedures for extinction can also be identified in three distinct forms which are linked to behavior and they are maintained by positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and automatic reinforcement. The concept of extinction could be applied in this case which involves Emma if the parents refuse to pick her up or clean the room.

Conclusion

     After reviewing different procedures which can be used in applied behavioral analysis to address human behavior, it does appear that some of these can be valuable modification techniques. Deciding which procedure to use will also be based on each individual case. Undesirable behaviors which were addressed in the 3 cases that I reviewed were refusal to clean a room on a regular basis, fearing dogs and throwing temper tantrums when asked to clean a room. The behavior modification procedures that I chose to implement for these cases are operant conditioning, and classical conditioning. These chosen procedures would also be used in an effort to improve individual behaviors versus those within a group setting.

Reference:

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2^nd ed). New Jersey: The Lehigh Press, Inc.