INNATE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS ETHNOCENTRISM?

According to (Chance. 2009), “learning takes up where reflexes, model action patterns, and general behavior traits leave off. It enables the organism to adapt to situations for which it’s largely innate behavior is inadequate” (p. 24). Since, certain innate behavior may be considered maladaptive within many aspects of our society, it can also have detrimental effects for most people.

One example of how learning can cause maladaptive behavior is when people develop ethnocentrism. This is identified as biased thinking or actions that negatively affect proper interaction between various cultures within our nation. It may also occur because there are different attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors among these cultures. These undesirable behaviors can also exist for generations and are often learned through social and home environments. One example of this is as follows:

A 45 year old white male has come to my office because he has been extremely depressed for many years. When completing my initial assessment, the client discloses that most of his worry is due to issues that he’s been having at work. This is because most fellow employees are Mexicans and he doesn’t want to work with those people. He also states that they are stealing jobs from Caucasian Americans who deserve them way more. When I ask him why he believes this, he states that his grandfather and father never liked Mexicans because they are all bad. Since, my client feels this way he has also been warned about possible termination due to exhibiting prejudice behavior. His boss has also stated that these personal views are extremely inappropriate within an equal opportunity employment setting. My client understands this policy, however; he still believes that Mexicans do not deserve American jobs.

Since, my client feels this way, I am confident that he may be experiencing ethnocentrism due to opinions which were learned in childhood. This is because he may have been taught that Caucasian Americans are better than other cultures. His skewed way of thinking is also causing problems within his work place and may negatively affect his current employment. This is because the views that he is expressing are considered innate behavior and are not shared or supported by most others in the company.

Reference:

Chance, P. (2009). Learning and behavior. (6 ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

WHAT IS SELECTIVE ATTENTION?

Many researchers, scientists, psychologists and other professionals believe that as human beings, there are times when we can only process incoming information by focusing on one oral message or visual object at a time. This is due to something called serial bottlenecks, which is the point when all incoming information may no longer be processed at the same time because it interferes with the procession of an individual stimuli and/or message.

After reviewing several selection in attention theories, I chose to address Treisman’s Attenuation Theory. According to (Anderson. 2010), “this model hypothesized that certain messages would be weakened but not filtered out entirely on the basis of their physical properties” (p. 67). This is also a slight modification from Broadbent’s filter theory which proposed that all incoming information does have serial bottlenecks and therefore individual stimuli is than processed into working memory based on some physical characteristic. There are also pros and cons that can be associated with Treisman’s Attenuation Theory. One of each is as follows: 

PRO - This allows individuals the opportunity to process multiple stimuli or messages while being filtered through the unattended channel based on word importance of each individual stimuli. This process is also known as the threshold effect. Stimuli with a low threshold are more likely to be filtered into one’s conscious awareness while stimuli with a high threshold, is more likely to get filtered out by one’s conscious awareness. One example of this could be when you are at a cocktail party and a friend and stranger call out your name at the same time.

Since, the friend has a familiar voice you may be more likely to hear that individual’s voice (stimuli) over that of the stranger’s voice. Different words also have different chances of making it through the unattended channel, due to something called a threshold effect. This is defined as the minimum amount of activation that it takes to produce a conscious awareness of particular stimuli. One major benefit of this process is that it offers individuals an opportunity to be in a multi-informational setting while choosing to acknowledge any words that may be considered most important and/or more appealing.

CON - This particular theory is unable to scientifically explain how semantic analysis works, which has also caused much controversy within the overall scientific community. This is because semantic analysis is a determination of how language acquires meaning. This process focuses on and can officially identify a relation or relationships/ between certain words, symbols, signs and/or phrases that explain cognition and language. This is also extremely important because a scientific explanation for this process must be acquired to enhance a theory’s overall level of reliability and validity.

Even though, there may be a lack in explaining how semantic analysis truly works with this theory, I still support the idea that this is exactly how humans beings choose selection in attention. This is because I choose to pay attention in the exact same manner on a daily basis. When more than one person is talking to me, I naturally tend to focus on (filter in) those who say something a certain way or whether they are more familiar to me, even though I’m cognitively aware of all others who are talking in the room. 

This theory can also explain why so many people seem to exhibit “selective attention” in most or all social settings. One other positive thing about this theory is that future research could be conducted to further address the lack in explanation concerning how semantic analysis really works. If this can be determined, it would certainly increase the level of reliability and validity that is presently associated with this theory. 

Reference:

Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY. 

2 EXAMPLES OF A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION FOR PROGRAM DESIGN & EVALUATION PROCESS

ASSESSING THE CASE OF SOPHIE & NATHAN FROM SOPHIE'S CHOICE. A FURTHER LOOK AT DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, SUBSTANCE ABUSE, POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER & SCHIZOPHRENIA

   

Recently, I watched a movie called “Sophie’s Choice.” Two of the main characters are named Sophie and Nathan who live at a boarding house in Brooklyn NY. Throughout the movie, these characters exhibit several different behaviors that may be due to individual mental illness. These behaviors also negatively affect how Sophie and Nathan interact within their personal relationship and socially with others. Therefore, the overall purpose of this work is to write a case evaluation that first diagnosis which mental disorder each character may have. I will then provide all pertinent findings, treatment recommendations and any ethical considerations that might apply during their overall assessment and treatment plans.

Case Name: Sophie Zawistowska

Background Information

Sophie is a polish catholic and survivor of the Holocaust. During her time there she was also forced to give up her daughter to be exterminated and her son was sent away never to be seen again. She doesn’t have a college level education but is bilingual and possesses a high level of overall writing and secretarial skills. These were acquired after working for her father translating documents during the Second World War. She is currently unemployed with no source of income so she relies on her boyfriend Nathan for financial support. She also believes that he saved her life because she was extremely ill after being released from the concentration camp and he provided her treatment. Sophie also has scars on her wrists from an attempted suicide but she did not disclose whether she received any psychological help to address the issues that may have caused this behavior. 

Behavioral Observations

Sophie is an extremely intelligent woman who always wears nice dresses and is well groomed. She interacts well with others but has a slight issue trying to fully understand the English language and which words should be used. Her mood is normally pleasant unless she experiences a psychological and/or physical altercation with her boyfriend Nathan or discusses certain remnants of her past. During these times she exhibits emotional behavior that is associated with being a battered woman or guilt and anxiety from certain choices that she made in her past. 

Diagnoses

309.81 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (Chronic Type)

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention:

Physical Abuse of Adult (V61.1)

Findings

After considering Sophie’s background information and current behavior, I would diagnose her with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The main reason for this diagnosis is because according to (DSM-IV-TR. 1995-2013), “when an individual who has been exposed to a traumatic event develops anxiety symptoms, reexperiencing of the event, and avoidance of stimuli related to the event lasting more than four weeks, they may be suffering from this particular Anxiety Disorder.” Research has also shown that most people who suffer with this disorder may have also experienced abandonment and/or severe neglect as children. 

In Sophie’s case, she was exposed to traumatic events that were threatening to the lives of her and her children. This included having to sacrifice the life of her only daughter to save her only son which caused intense feelings of fear, helplessness, and horror at the time of occurrence. Since, this increased level of trauma occurred I suspect that Sophie has continuously recalled the events through cognition of distressing mental images, perceptions or thoughts. However, since these may cause her great psychological distress, she chooses to use total avoidance of the events as a major coping mechanism. This includes continuously making a conscious effort to avoid all feelings, thoughts, or conversations associated with the events.

Since, Sophie lives her life trying to avoid these haunting aspects from her past, it has also caused a feeling of being detached or estranged from many others. One example of this is when she thinks about the "choice" that she made as a mother and it makes her believe that she has less worth than all other mothers. She also exhibits a slight restricted range of affect and high sense of a foreshortened future. Some examples of this are when she always tells Nathan that she is going to die and when telling Stingo that she’ll probably never be able to love him, live a normal life in Virginia or be a good mother for his children.

She also changes the room around at night because she can’t sleep and seems to exhibit an exaggerated startle response during certain physical situations with Nathan. I believe that she is exhibiting these behaviors because she doesn’t want to have nightmares that are associated with her past trauma or experience further physical abuse at the hands of her loving partner. Since, these issues have occurred for several years Sophie also exhibits significant levels of distress or impairment in other areas of functioning. Therefore, she has also become majorly dependent on Nathan to meet her social, economic, psychological and physical needs.

Furthermore, I also believe that Sophie has been a repeated victim of physical abuse during the course of her relationship with Nathan. This occurs because when he experiences certain symptoms associated with his mental illness while abusing substances, he becomes physically violent and aggressive toward her. There are also repeated scenes in the movie when she is crying and tries to conceal visible bruises that he has left on her body. Although, she says that his abusive behavior is okay and allows it to continue due to her extreme level of overall dependency on him.

Treatment Recommendations

When reviewing Sophie’s case, there are some major issues that would need to be addressed. The first one is her psychological need to use avoidance to deal with her past. This is a major issue because it’s preventing her from dealing with feelings of guilt and shame in an appropriate and healthy manner. I would also treat this issue by using one-on-one talk and exposure therapy. This way, she would be able to verbally expose issues from her past in a safe environment and learn coping skills that can be used to manage her overwhelming level of guilt and shame. 

Furthermore, I would also prescribe a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor to reduce the intensity of these negative feelings. This is because according to (Jaffe & Schub. 2012), “selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the first-line medications used to treat PTSD and are the only medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of PTSD.” Finally, I would refer Sophie to an agency that helps women who are victims of domestic violence. This is because she may be able to receive beneficial services like further counseling, a safer place to live and group therapy with other victims.  

Prognosis

When reviewing all of the details of Sophie’s case, I don’t believe that she would do well in treatment and that her overall prognosis is less than fair. This is because if she continues to live in her current environment, further abuse from Nathan will most likely occur and she won’t have the positive support system that is needed to fully recover from her severe level of long-term PTSD. Having a positive support system and acquiring treatment are also major requirements for people who develop this disorder after experiencing trauma because it can reduce symptoms and initiate a faster recovery time. However, up to this point she has only received positive support from their mutual friend Stingo who knows little about PTSD. 

I am also confident that she will never acquire the motivation that is needed to end her relationship with Nathan due to her growing dependency and skewed belief that he is her savior. Therefore, her feelings of guilt and shame will probably get worse and she may also begin to experience issues like low self-esteem and worthlessness due to ongoing occurrences of severe psychological and physical abuse.

Ethical/Legal Considerations

When conducting an assessment and treatment plan for Sophie, I will also need to address any ethical concerns that may apply. This is because following ethical standards will help ensure that her rights are protected throughout the overall process. Four specific ethical codes that may also apply to her individual case include:

1. Informed Consent – According to this standard, professionals must inform participants of all features which might affect his or her willingness to participate. This is important because clients will be informed about the overall purpose and it gives them an option to participate or withdraw. I will also implement this by having Sophie sign a written document that identifies the overall content and purpose of the assessment and treatment plan.   

2. Debriefing – This states that all professionals should debrief each client before, during and after the process. This is important because it can ensure that clients are aware of all beginning, ongoing, and final results that may be obtained. This can also allow the opportunity to address any misconceptions that clients may have during the overall process. I could also implement this by ensuring that Sophie was kept informed about all important findings.

3. Protection From Harm – This means that I will need to get permission from Sophie prior to treatment and if any aspects of treatment may be harmful to her I will avoid using them.

4. Confidentiality – This standard protects the rights of clients by mandating that personal information can only be released under specific circumstances. Following this law is important because it can ensure that no harm occurs to the client due to personal information being released in a malicious or damaging manner to third party members. However, according to (BACB Guidelines For Responsible Conduct), a behavior analyst can “disclose confidential information without the consent of the individual only as mandated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid purpose, such as (1) to provide needed professional services to the individual or organizational client, (2) to obtain appropriate professional consultations, (3) to protect the client or others from harm, or (4) to obtain payment for services, in which instance disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve the purpose” (p.4). Since, this is the case I may be required to report some of Sophie’s personal information to specific third parties that can further assist her. This is because she is a victim of domestic violence which is a crime and she may also be a danger to herself due to an unstable psychological state and/or mental disorder.

Client Name: Nathan

Background Information

Nathan is 29 years of age and from a Jewish descent. He currently lives in Brooklyn with his girlfriend Sophie and states that he is a biologist but his brother says that he actually works at a library. He claims that he graduated from Harvard University but his brother dispels that lie as well by saying that Nathan has no college education and is regularly abusing cocaine. Furthermore, he was diagnosed with Paranoid Schizophrenia at the age of 10 and has been in and out of mental institutions. The symptoms that are associated with this particular disorder are also still present.

Behavioral Observations

Nathan is an extremely intelligent man who often wears nice suits and is well groomed. He interacts well with others unless he experiences a psychotic episode. This is when his mood changes and he becomes extremely agitated, angry, paranoid, and delusional. During this time, he also psychologically and physically abuses Sophie on a severe level. Furthermore, he also has delusions of grandeur which make him believe that he is a brilliant biologist and almost every aspect of his daily life is consumed by this fabricated way of thinking. 

Diagnosis

295.30 (Schizophrenia) Paranoid Type - This type of schizophrenia involves a preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations. In order to diagnose a client with this disorder, he or she must also still have organized speech and non-catatonic behavior.

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention:

Substance Abuse and possible Bi-Polar Disorder 

Findings

After reviewing Nathan’s background information and long-term behavior, I diagnosed him with Paranoid Schizophrenia because he meets the criteria for that disorder. This is because he exhibits the following symptoms and/or behavior:

1. Clinically significant distress – He feels bad after he hurts Sophie due to his disorder.

2. Mood changes with periodic hypomania – He becomes agitated and physically abuses Sophie.

3. Anger that is dealt with by using repression, denial or paranoid projections – He often psychologically attacks Sophie by calling her names and accusing her of cheating on him.

4. Delusions of grandeur or auditory hallucinations – He believes that he graduated from Harvard University and is a brilliant biologist who is working on groundbreaking research.

Treatment Recommendations

When reviewing Nathan’s case, there are major issues that need to be immediately addressed. The first one will be to try and reduce the overall level of symptoms that are related to Paranoid Schizophrenia. According to (Butcher., Mineka & Hooley. 2010), an individual with this type of schizophrenia “shows a history of increasing suspiciousness and of severe difficulties in interpersonal relationships” (p. 463). The symptoms that seem to be most relevant with Nathan are his mood changes with hypomania, paranoid projections, anger, and delusions of grandeur. 

The main reason that these symptoms should be treated as soon as possible is because he is causing psychological and physical harm to Sophie when they appear. These symptoms are also preventing him from being able to live in a normal state of reality. I would begin treating his disorder by verbally teaching him certain coping skills that can be used to manage these symptoms and prescribe an antipsychotic medication to try and reduce the intensity of symptoms and number of episodes. 

Furthermore, I would also refer Nathan for an additional assessment to address possible Bi-Polar Disorder and to agencies that help with domestic violence and substance abuse. This is because he may be able to receive beneficial services like further counseling, a neutral place for discussion, and group therapy with others who are experiencing the same issues.

Prognosis

When reviewing all of the details of Nathan’s case, I don’t believe that he will do well in treatment and that his overall prognosis is poor. This is because if he continues to live in his current environment, further abuse to Sophie will most likely occur when mood changes with hypomania and/or paranoia are present. Therefore, he won’t have the positive support system that is needed to combat symptoms that are associated with his severe level of long-term Paranoid Schizophrenia. Having a positive support system and acquiring treatment are also major requirements for people who develop this disorder because it may reduce these symptoms. 

However, up to this point he has been in and out of several mental institutions and has not improved. I am also confident that he will never acquire the motivation that is needed to end his relationship with Sophie due to his growing obsession and skewed belief that he is her grand savior. Therefore, his symptoms will probably only get worse and he may also begin to experience issues like self-hate and depression due to his continuous psychologically and physically abuse toward Sophie.

Ethical/Legal Considerations

When conducting an assessment and treatment plan for Nathan, I would also need to address any ethical concerns that may apply. This is because following ethical standards would help ensure that his rights were protected throughout the overall process. Five specific ethical codes that may apply to her individual case include:

1. Informed Consent – This means that I will need to inform Nathan about all features that might affect his willingness to participate. I will also implement this by asking him to sign a document that identifies the content and purpose of the assessment and treatment plan.  

3. Debriefing – This means that I will need to debrief Nathan before, during and after the assessment and treatment process. This is important because it will ensure that he’s aware of all beginning, ongoing, and final results that are obtained. This will also allow the opportunity to address any misconceptions that he may have during the overall process.

4. Protection From Harm – This means that I will need to acquire permission before treating Nathan and if any aspects of treatment may harmful, I will avoid using them.  

5. Confidentiality – This states that personal information can only be released under specific circumstances. The BACB Guidelines For Responsible Conduct also state that a professional can disclose confidential information without a client’s consent to protect the client or others from harm. In Nathan’s case, I would be forced to release some of his personal information to third parties. This is because he carries weapons, has threatened others safety and has already caused severe psychological and physical harm to Sophie. Since he is experiencing delusions of grandeur about who he is and what he has become, I also don’t believe that he is competent enough to make important decisions so involuntary hospitalization may be required in the future.  

Summary

This was written after watching a movie called “Sophie’s Choice” which includes two main characters named Sophie and Nathan. There are several scenes in the movie that depict different behaviors which may be associated with individualized mental illness. These behaviors and/or symptoms also negatively affect how Sophie and Nathan are able to interact as a couple and with others in various social settings. Therefore, the overall purpose of this work was to first provide a case evaluation for each character that confirms which mental disorder/s they may have. I then followed each diagnosis with any pertinent findings, treatment recommendations and ethical considerations that may apply to each case. 

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). BehaveNet: APA Diagnostic Classification DSM-IV-TR. Retrieved on February 1 2013 via the World Wide Web at http://behavenet.com/apa-diagnostic-classification-dsm-iv-tr 

Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2004). Guidelines for responsible conduct for behavior analysts. Retrieved on February 2 2012 via Kaplan Online at http://content-asc.kaplan.edu.edgesuite.net/PS502_1004A/images/product/Guidelines%20for%20Responsible%20Conduct.pdf

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th Ed.). Boston, MA. Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Higher Education.

Pakula, Alan (Director and Producer). (1982). Sophie’s Choice. (DVD). Lions Gate

Schub, T., Jaffe, S. (2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved on February 3 2013 via the Kaplan Library at http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=b008d357-ffce-4487-b4b6-7d2bd37572c9%40sessionmgr11&vid=9&hid=2

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE: HOW SPECIFIC BRAIN STRUCTURES CAUSE CERTAIN BEHAVIOR/S

             After reviewing several different articles and books about cognitive neuroscience, I chose to discuss one that addressed how specific brain structures cause certain behavior/s. According to (Lezak, Howieson & Loring. 2004), “the brain is an intricately patterned complex of small and delicate structures. Three major anatomical divisions of the brain succeed one another along the brain stem: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain” (p. 42). Behavior can then be determined based on how information is processed and flows through structures within these divisions. Some of these structures are also as follows:

RAS - This is known as the reticular activating system and it is located in the midbrain. Its function is to control one’s level of wakefulness and alertness so an individual has the ability to react to certain stimuli.  

Thalamus - This is located at the top of the brain stem and it is responsible for relaying sensory messages and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, while also regulating ones consciousness, alertness, and sleep.

Hypothalamus - This is located under the thalamus. Its main function is to regulate things like emotions, hunger, sex drive, thirst and many other major drives.

Amygdala - This includes two almond-shaped masses of neurons that are located on each side of the thalamus. Their primary function is associated with regulation of certain emotions, like anger or fear. This is also a very important part of individual brain structure because if people and animals didn’t have these, they may not be affected by certain stimuli that would normally be frightening, personally threatening or dangerous.

Cerebellum - This is located at the base of the brain, directly behind the brainstem. Its main function is to maintain balance and coordination of complex movements, along with controlling certain responses associated with perception and cognition, like pleasure and fear.

Somatosensory Cortex - This is located in the midbrain and it processes information when affected by various systems in the body that are sensitive to touch. This sensitivity can include pain, temperature, and the proprioception system. It is also highly sensitive which allows people to detect and interpret a large variety of sensations.

Frontal Lobes - The main function of these is to receive and coordinate messages from other lobes, regulate motor control, speech and other higher functions.

What Does This Tell Us About Brain Structures and Human Behavior/s?

After reading this previous research, one thing that I have learned is that all behaviors are exhibited based on different structures within our brain. A second thing is that the brain is way more complex than I had initially realized. While, a third thing that I have learned is that several psychological/physical behaviors would not occur if it wasn’t for these structures and that they can diminish or be altered when these structures are damaged.

Conclusion

Although, this article was very thorough and extremely informative, I believe that further research should be conducted. This is because the article could not determine all of the affects that individual brain structures have on human behavior/s. Therefore, I am confident that further research may uncover even more evidence to prove how brain structures and human behavior/s are related. This process can also be completed by identifying further correlations among these two factors.   

Reference:

Lezak, M., Howieson, D., & Loring, D. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4^th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

UNDERSTANDING THE CONNECTION BETWEEN BELIEF PERSEVERANCE, CRITICAL THINKING & COMMON SENSE

According to (Douglas. 2000), belief perseverance is “when people form a belief based on initial evidence, the belief will be resistant to contradictory evidence, and when people form a theory based on erroneous evidence and later discover that the evidence is false, the belief often survives such discrediting” (p. 134). There are also different strategies that can be used to overcome belief perseverance. Two of these strategies include the use of:

1. Critical Thinking – This is when someone will choose to believe a certain thought because it is based on observations through environmental factors, specific data, or other factual evidence. Critical thinking usually lacks the bias that may normally be present within average home, school and/or social beliefs.

2. Common Sense – This is based on factual opinions of average people about a specific phenomenon. Normally, these opinions are considered factual because they are thought to be common knowledge among most members of a society, population or culture. This thought process is also not usually extremely jeopardized by prejudice or biased thinking.

There are also several times when people are unable to overcome belief perseverance. Two examples could include prejudice and religious beliefs that have been conditioned by respected loved ones or those that have been acquired through a lack of critical thinking and/or common sense. The negative consequences of this skewed belief system can create further issues and will depend on each individual situation. One example is if a Caucasian person chose to be prejudice against an Afro American by starting a physical fight with that person. The initial victim could then end up killing the person who chose to act out based on his or her prejudice beliefs. Therefore, the consequence of prejudice thinking in this particular situation would be premature death of the Caucasian.   

According to previous research, there are also many similarities and differences between common sense and science that are based on which area of psychology is being considered. One particular area that common sense does not play a huge role in is that of neurophysiology. Although, common sense is considered an extremely valuable attribute when applied to the areas of social psychology and social cognition. Common sense is also categorized in three ways which include “a set of shared fundamental assumptions,” “a set of maxims or shared beliefs,” and “as a shared way of thinking” (Fletcher. 1984. p. 1). These are viewed as three major similarities between common sense and science because this thought process is shared by many within a specific population, culture or society. Furthermore, three differences between common sense and science are as follows:

1. Common sense is based on only preconceived ideas while science acquires factual data that can support or dispute those initial ideas.

2. Common sense can include prejudice or biased thinking but scientific theories are designed after attempting to eliminate these potentially harmful factors.

3. Common sense can lack validity but science tries to reduce or eliminate this possible issue before sharing any newly acquired information with the general public.

References:

Douglas, N. (2000). Enemies of critical thinking: Lessons from social psychology research. Reading Psychology. Retrieved on September 8 2011 via the World Wide Web at http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=5040acc5-a3b0-42d6 911e-2250afb06064%40sessionmgr111&vid=2&hid=21

Fletcher, G. (1984). American Psychologist: Psychology and Common Sense. University of Waikalo Hamilton, New Zealand. Retrieved on September 8 2011 via the World Wide Web at http://contentasc.kaplan.edu.edgesuite.net/PS501_1004A/images/product/Psychology%20&%20Common%20Sense.pdf

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDUCTIVE & DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

According to (Anderson. 2010), researchers have been “investigating brain areas involved in reasoning, and it suggests that people can bring different systems to bear on different reasoning problems” (p. 273). There are also two well-established logical methods of reasoning that have been identified which are known as inductive and deductive. Trying to understand these reasoning methods may be difficult because the differences between them are subtle. Therefore, I have also provided a more in depth description and examples of each method below:

Inductive Reasoning – This is a process of reasoning that involves the use of specific observations to reach a general theory or logical conclusion. It can be categorized into different types which include: statistical syllogism, simple induction, generalization, false analogy, and casual inference. An inductive argument is also evaluated based on whether it is strong or weak and there are many times when the conclusion will be false even when the specific observations are true. This is because the conclusion is based on an individual’s educated prediction and/or bias thinking. Specific bias thinking that may occur with this type of reasoning could be confirmation bias, availability heuristic, and the predictable world bias.

Furthermore, when the specific observations that are used to acquire the conclusion are false, the argument will be considered “unsound.” Three examples of an inductive argument can also be as follows:

Example #1 – 100% of life forms on earth need water to survive. Since this is the case, if a new planet is discovered, then that life form will probably also need water to survive.

Example #2 – The neighbor’s dog has a high pitched bark. I hear a high pitched bark outside, so the neighbor’s dog must be barking.

Example #3 – Every time I eat dairy products, I get cramps in my stomach. Therefore I must get cramps in my stomach because I eat dairy products.

Deductive Reasoning – This is a process of reasoning that involves the use of a theory or general statements to reach a specific logical conclusion. A deductive argument is evaluated based on its overall level of validity and soundness. Since, this is the case there are times when a deductive argument may be considered valid but unsound. For example, when a specific conclusion is true, the argument may be valid, even though the general statements that were used are false. Since, a deductive argument is based on individual emotion and belief, there are also many times when it may contain a certain level of bias thinking. 

One example of bias thinking that can occur is when there may be differences in beliefs among varying cultures. Therefore, a deductive argument will only be considered sound if it is both valid and the general statements are true. Three examples of a deductive argument can also be as follows: 

Example #1 – All bachelors in the world are single. Joe is single. Joe is a bachelor.

Example #2 – The members of the Johnston family include Becky, Arnold and Larry. Becky is overweight. Arnold is overweight. Larry is overweight. Therefore, all members of the Johnston family are overweight.

Example #3 – Each day, I drive to work. This takes one hour. My job starts at nine o' clock in the morning. Therefore, if I leave at eight o' clock in the morning, I will get to work on time.

Reference:

Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY.  

HOW TO TREAT ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) (THE EXAMPLE CASE OF 8 YEAR OLD CHANTEL)

            According to (Hunt, Marshall, 2005), “attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that affects an individual’s ability to attend or focus on tasks and that may involve high levels of motoric activity. Between 3 and 5 percent of children in the United States are identified as having ADHD” (p. 256). Research has shown that many of these children are also diagnosed with a learning disability or possible conduct-related behavioral disorder. As a child development specialist, my current goal is to assist a young girl who has recently been diagnosed with ADHD. In order to successfully accomplish this goal, I will need to design an in-depth step-by-step treatment process. These steps will also be addressed within two written sections which are as follows:

1. Part I: Analysis

2. Part II: Intervention

PART I: ANALYSIS

             8 year old Chantel has recently been diagnosed with ADHD. She is exhibiting specified behavioral issues which may be devastating to her overall growth, functioning, and development. These issues are also affecting 5 specific domains which include cognitive, social/emotional, and physical, along with her home and school environments. Some of the specific issues within each domain are as follows: Chantel’s cognitive issues are hyperactivity, lack of focus, forgetfulness and/or poor memory skills. She may be experiencing social/emotional issues due to exile from fellow classmates. This constant isolation could also be causing inner feelings of inadequacy, loneliness and despair. Chantel’s major physical issue is that she’s sometimes aggressive toward classmates and does occasionally use excessive force. If this continues then she may eventually harm herself, a teacher, fellow classmate, family member or animal. It is also possible that she may be physically acting out in an attempt to communicate or manipulate an environment that she doesn’t fully understand. Although this is a major source of concern, she is also a fast runner, who is physically flexible, strong and athletic. Since she possesses these physical attributes, her peers usually pick her first in gym class. She is also experiencing issues within her home environment. Her parents have expressed a major concern about her level of hyperactivity, forgetfulness, impulsive behavior, late poor quality work, history with behavioral incidents, scapegoating occurrences and lack of social skill.

How Do These Behavioral Issues Affect Chantel’s School Environment?

Since, cognitive, social/emotional, physical and home environmental issues are occurring I believe that they are drastically affecting Chantel’s overall performance at school. Some of these issues may also coincide with her parent’s concerns, along with unique school related issues. These include difficulty retaining or remembering information, completing tasks, unsatisfactory work and some physical altercations with fellow classmates. She is also required to complete the same grade curriculum and time frames as “normal” peers who don’t have ADHD.

PART II: INTERVENTION

            Since several issues are present, implementing an intervention plan will be the next important step during this process. This step will also give me the opportunity to implement a treatment plan which is specifically designed to assist Chantel. The intervention plan that I have designed for Chantel is also “based on the principles of applied behavioral analysis; these programs involve the systematic instruction of discreet skills” (Hunt, Marshall, 2005. p. 309). An individualized ABA program plan is normally implemented to modify behaviors that may be viewed as undesirable to the client and/or society. There are also many cases when the undesirable behaviors are actually due to underlying symptoms of a disability, like ADHD. Since this is one of those cases, I have designed a 3 step process plan for Chantel, which includes early intervention, implementing specific techniques, and measuring and monitoring. This overall plan has also been designed to identify how to properly assist Chantel based on her individual needs and can be viewed below:

STEP 1. EARLY INTERVENTION

This first step is a key factor in order to properly assess and treat Chantel’s actual behavioral issues. This initial assessment is also when I will decide which techniques should be used to address the behaviors that are causing major distress.

STEP 2. IMPLEMENTING SPECIFIC TECHNIQUES

The second step is to implement techniques which can modify behaviors that are affecting specific domains. These 5 domains and recommended techniques are as follows:

Cognitive – She is experiencing hyperactivity, lack of focus, forgetfulness and/or poor memory skills within this area. Techniques that I can use which may improve cognitive development are individualized instruction programs and strategies. These can include a self management program and assistive technology.

Social/Emotional – Chantel wants to play with other children but she lacks proper social skill. Therefore, she will need techniques that build and/or develop these valuable skills. Once this process is completed, Chantel may also be able to interact with family members, teachers, and peers on a much healthier social and emotional level. Two techniques that I can use to help her develop these skills are implementation of monitored play dates and child counseling sessions. 
Physical - It‘s crucial that I provide a plan which can reduce Chantel’s desire to be aggressive. The techniques to address this issue will also first be implemented within her school environment.  

Home Environment – When a child is diagnosed with a behavioral disorder, this can cause many feelings within the family. Some of these include stress, guilt, helplessness and anger. It is important to implement techniques which will foster a positive and supportive home environment, while eliminating some of these family emotions. Chantel’s parents also revealing some of these feelings due to her ADHD. It is important that we support these concerns by keeping her parents informed through every step of the implementation/treatment process. They must also be informed about any plan changes or modifications so they can support and practice treatment consistency. If this is completed, then the level of stress and other feelings may decrease over time. Two techniques that I can implement which may initiate family support and consistency are effective communication skills and appropriate family intervention classes.

School Environment – Chantel needs comprehensive processes that may improve her issues with late homework, problems retraining or remembering information, unsatisfactory or incomplete work. She also tries to complete the same curriculum and time frames as “normal” peers even though she has ADHD. Below, there are 4 techniques that may address each one of these issues:

1. Proper Assessment - I will recommend that Chantel is immediately assessed by the appropriate staff members. This will determine if she should be completing the same curriculum as normally developed peers. If she is diagnosed with a learning disability due to her ADHD, then she may benefit greatly, from assistive technology or special education classes.

2. Weekly Reporting - The second technique that I will implement to address and/or modify these behaviors while at school is the addition of weekly reporting. Weekly reports can be used as a way to record how many issues occur and the details of each event. This process can also generate valuable information that may help with her treatment plan and possibly prevent any scapegoating issues that her parents are concerned about. 

3. Behavior Chaining/Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior - The third technique that I will recommend is the implementation of behavior chaining. According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward, p. 435), “a behavior chain is a sequence of discrete responses, each associated with a particular stimulus condition. Each discrete response and the associated stimulus condition serve as an individual component of the chain. When individual components are linked together, the result is a behavior chain that produces a terminal outcome.”

Since, Chantel has ADHD she may require a world which is extremely routine and/ or structured. I believe that if she could slowly learn different chains of desirable behavior, she will begin to perform these rituals on a regular and permanent basis. Behavior chaining can also be conducted on a single individual our within a group setting. An alternate procedure that could also be used in Chantel’s classroom and recess settings is known as Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior. According to (Cooper, Heron, Heward), this procedure “reinforces occurrences of behavior that provides a desirable alternative to the problem behavior but is not necessarily incompatible with it” (p. 471). An example of this process is as follows:

“When an incident begins to occur, the teacher will tell Chantel that it is unacceptable behavior. The teacher will than re-direct Chantel to hug her friend instead, and then go swing together.”

4. Parent/Teacher Conferences – I will also implement weekly parent/teacher conferences as a required technique. This will offer an opportunity to disclose all results or details which are pertinent to her treatment plan. These will include the weekly report and other factors. 

STEP 3. MEASURING AND MONITORING

This final step can be very exciting after implementing a program plan! This is because information will be shared which can determine if the implemented program plan and/or techniques are beneficial to Chantel’s treatment process. These results will also be gathered through weekly reports that identify any new behavioral changes or other issues.

CONCLUSION

               As stated in my initial introduction, according to (Hunt, Marshall, 2005), "attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that affects an individual’s ability to attend or focus on tasks and that may involve high levels of motoric activity. Between 3 and 5 percent of children in the United States are identified as having ADHD” (p. 256). Research has shown that many of these children are also diagnosed with a learning disability or possible conduct-related behavioral disorder.

As a child development specialist, my initial goal was to assist 8 year old Chantel, who has recently been diagnosed with ADHD. She was also exhibiting behaviors within 5 specific domains. In order to successfully accomplish this goal, I chose to address these behaviors within two specific sections. These included a lengthy analysis of observable details and creation of a final intervention and treatment plan.

I am confident that this overall process would modify some of Chantel’s undesirable behaviors. This is because my plan included the use of techniques that are based on principles of ABA to strengthen development within specified areas. The major domains of concern for Chantel’s case were cognitive, social/emotional, physical, and home and school environments. Some of my chosen techniques to modify behavior within these domains were the implementation of behavior chaining, differential alternative reinforcement, mandatory parent/teacher conferences, and parental communication to ensure plan consistency. The results of Chantel’s intervention and treatment plan would also be closely measured and monitored through weekly reporting. These results would also keep her “intervention/treatment team” informed about any new behavioral changes or other concerns. One example of this would be results that show where her undesirable aggressive behavior has been modified through “Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior” to reflect desirable hugging behavior!

     

REFERENCES:

Hunt, N., & Marshall, K. (2005). Exceptional children and youth (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2^nd ed). New Jersey: The Lehigh Press, Inc.