WHY SOME KIDS MAY NOT FOLLOW RULES DUE TO CONDUCT DISORDER (THE CASE OF RAUL & JOSE)

Case History

“Raul is 14 years old. His younger brother, Jose, is 13. They were raised together by their parents. The two boys, along with their younger sister, Maria, age 8, were recently removed from their parents’ custody by Arizona Child Protective Services. 

The two boys have experienced regular physical and verbal abuse by their father, Alberto Lopez. Mr. and Mrs. Lopez are illegal immigrants from Mexico. They are both migrant workers in the Western USA, moving continuously throughout California, Oregon, Arizona, Idaho, and Colorado to follow the availability of seasonal farm work. The children have not attended school regularly due to the family’s mobility, and Raul has often been left in charge of the younger two children when the Lopez’s have been working long days, sometimes seven days a week during picking season.

The family has had two encounters in the past year with INS, but has escaped by fleeing and hiding. They live in fear of deportation and/or arrest. Mr. and Mrs. Lopez do their best to feed and clothe their children while also sending money home to family members in need in Mexico.  Money is very tight, and resources are limited.

Mr. Lopez had bouts of drinking before he and his family slipped over the US border three years ago. But since that time, due to the stresses of migrant life, he has abused alcohol regularly. He will drink whatever he can afford or obtain free of charge. Mr. Lopez often becomes violent when he is drunk. He routinely loses patience with his children, demeans them verbally, blames them for his stresses, and beats them with his hands or belt. 

He also batters his wife when he is drunk. He breaks objects and/or throws them at his family. The children have all suffered bruises, contusions, and occasional broken bones, for which medical care has not been available. When Mr. Lopez is sober, he hates himself for how he is treating his family, and he sees a priest whenever he can to confess his behaviors and start again. The family often attends Catholic Church services in their native language, run by Catholic missionaries. 

The three children came to the attention of CPS because of Raul’s behavior. Raul was caught setting fire to a German Shepherd who was outside in the backyard of family in a nearby town.  The family was away for the day. Raul had smashed a window and entered the house, and stolen jewelry and coca cola. He ran from the police when they arrived at the house. When interviewed, he was defiant and denied any wrongdoing. 

Others in the community report that Raul has been involved in fights with their children, and that he is often seen verbally taunting other kids. The police picked up Raul, along with his younger brother and sister, who were apparently horrified at what Raul had been doing to the dog. Jose and Maria were trying to save the dog.

While left in charge of his younger siblings, Raul has been verbally and physically abusive to them, “to keep the discipline”, he says. He is worried about his younger brother, Jose, because he believes that Jose “acts like a little girl.” Jose appears nervous and shy. He speaks in a barely audible voice. He has problems getting out of bed in the morning, daydreams most of the day, bites his nails continuously, wets the bed at night, cries a lot, does not seem to have any interest in sports or physical activities, and does not connect well with other children. 

When interviewed by CPS, Jose seemed to blame himself for how his father is acting, believing that he is the main cause of the family’s stress. Jose did seem very bonded to his younger sister, Maria, however, and seemed to view himself as her protector” (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2004).

Diagnoses For Raul:

After reviewing all details of this case and AXIS I diagnoses which are listed in the DSM-IV-TR, I believe that Raul may be experiencing:

Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence

·         Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders: Conduct Disorder (312.8)

Adjustment Disorders (with): Disturbance of Conduct (309.3)

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention (AXIS II)

·         Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Condition (316)

·         Relational Problems: Parent-Child (V61.20), Sibling (V61.8)

·         Problems Related to Abuse or Neglect: Neglect of Child (V61.21) Physical Abuse of Child (V61.21)

·         Child or Adolescent Antisocial Behavior (V71.02)

·         Phase of Life Problem (V62.89)

According to (Facts for Families. 2004), “conduct disorder refers to a group of behavioral and emotional problems in youngsters. Children and adolescents with this disorder have great difficulty following rules and behaving in a socially acceptable way” (p. 1). Since, these children suffer from certain behavioral disorders that cause lack of control they may also experience several social problems in a normal setting if the disorder is left untreated. Some of these problems can include bullying and intimidating others, initiating physical altercations, forcing sexual activity, and using weapons to harm people and/or animals. 

In a “normal” society, children who suffer from conduct disorder may also be viewed as bad or delinquent instead of being evaluated by a mental health professional. If this lack of adequate support and treatment continues with Raul, then he may also experience oppositional defiant disorder as he gets older. This may be especially true in his case because he might eventually begin to defy the “authoritative” abuse that is occurring at the hands of his father. Therefore, treatment of his suspected diagnoses must be addressed as soon as possible.

Diagnoses For Jose:

After reviewing all details of this case and AXIS 1 diagnoses which are listed in the DSM-IV-TR, I also believe that Jose may be experiencing:

Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence

·         Pervasive Developmental Disorders: Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (299.10)

·         Elimination Disorders: Enuresis (307.6)

Adjustment Disorders (with): Mixed Disturbance of Emotions and Conduct (309.4)

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention (AXIS II)

·         Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Condition (316)

·         Relational Problems: Parent-Child (V61.20), Sibling (V61.8)

·         Problems Related to Abuse or Neglect: Neglect of Child (V61.21) Physical Abuse of Child (V61.21)

·         Child or Adolescent Antisocial Behavior (V71.02)

·         Age-Related Cognitive Decline (780.9)

·         Phase of Life Problem (V62.89)

Adjustment disorder with mixed disturbance of emotions and conduct usually occurs due to a stressful life event and may cause negative behavioral changes and a lack of emotional stability. This disorder normally affects children who are under the age of 18 and symptoms may include anxiety, sadness and/or a disruption of normal routine. When this disorder is present, it may be possible to affectively overcome these symptoms with the right support. Therefore, a suitable treatment plan will need to be implemented to address this possible disorder. If this occurs, it is also possible that many of Jose’s other disorders and/or conditions will improve or be reduced over time.

Recommendations For Treatment

After evaluating this case, I also believe that these boys may be experiencing different disorders and/or other conditions for several reasons. However, the main factor could be due to a difference in cognitive processing of incoming environmental stimuli. This is because most individuals have the ability to process symptoms of trauma like fear, anger, helplessness and sadness on different levels. This may also be individually determined based on what coping mechanisms are most needed to successfully support psychological and/or physical survival. Regardless, of varying symptoms, there are several strategies which can be used with both Raul and Jose to address these individual disorders and/or other conditions. These include:

1. Early Intervention – This is a key factor in order to offer the best possible support and treatment before behavior/s get worse.

2. Comprehensive Evaluation – This will help determine whether Raul and Jose may be suffering from other existing disorders like (PTSD) due to years of physical and psychological abuse. If this is the case, then that could also be what initially contributed to the onset of their current disorders and/or other conditions.

3. Treatment Plan – A trained professional can devise an individualized plan for Raul and Jose by gathering information and support from teachers, family members, and any pertinent medical staff that may exist. This plan may also include behavioral therapy and psychotherapy which can help both boys control these maladaptive behaviors and better adjust within their psychological and physical environments. However, in this case, I don’t believe that these treatment plans will be successful unless the parents take an active approach by obtaining suitable treatment for their issues as well.

4. Medication – This can be prescribed to Raul and Jose, because they are exhibiting issues with specific behavior/s that may be directly related to their individual disorders.

References:

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Facts for Families/Conduct Disorder 2004. Retrieved on September 19 2012 via the World Wide Web at http://www.aacap.org/galleries/FactsForFamilies/33_conduct_disorder.pdf

BehaveNet: APA Diagnostic Classification DSM-IV-TR. Copyright (2000). American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved on December 20 2012 via the World Wide Web at http://behavenet.com/apa-diagnostic-classification-dsm-iv-tr

INNATE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS ETHNOCENTRISM?

According to (Chance. 2009), “learning takes up where reflexes, model action patterns, and general behavior traits leave off. It enables the organism to adapt to situations for which it’s largely innate behavior is inadequate” (p. 24). Since, certain innate behavior may be considered maladaptive within many aspects of our society, it can also have detrimental effects for most people.

One example of how learning can cause maladaptive behavior is when people develop ethnocentrism. This is identified as biased thinking or actions that negatively affect proper interaction between various cultures within our nation. It may also occur because there are different attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors among these cultures. These undesirable behaviors can also exist for generations and are often learned through social and home environments. One example of this is as follows:

A 45 year old white male has come to my office because he has been extremely depressed for many years. When completing my initial assessment, the client discloses that most of his worry is due to issues that he’s been having at work. This is because most fellow employees are Mexicans and he doesn’t want to work with those people. He also states that they are stealing jobs from Caucasian Americans who deserve them way more. When I ask him why he believes this, he states that his grandfather and father never liked Mexicans because they are all bad. Since, my client feels this way he has also been warned about possible termination due to exhibiting prejudice behavior. His boss has also stated that these personal views are extremely inappropriate within an equal opportunity employment setting. My client understands this policy, however; he still believes that Mexicans do not deserve American jobs.

Since, my client feels this way, I am confident that he may be experiencing ethnocentrism due to opinions which were learned in childhood. This is because he may have been taught that Caucasian Americans are better than other cultures. His skewed way of thinking is also causing problems within his work place and may negatively affect his current employment. This is because the views that he is expressing are considered innate behavior and are not shared or supported by most others in the company.

Reference:

Chance, P. (2009). Learning and behavior. (6 ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

WHAT IS SELECTIVE ATTENTION?

Many researchers, scientists, psychologists and other professionals believe that as human beings, there are times when we can only process incoming information by focusing on one oral message or visual object at a time. This is due to something called serial bottlenecks, which is the point when all incoming information may no longer be processed at the same time because it interferes with the procession of an individual stimuli and/or message.

After reviewing several selection in attention theories, I chose to address Treisman’s Attenuation Theory. According to (Anderson. 2010), “this model hypothesized that certain messages would be weakened but not filtered out entirely on the basis of their physical properties” (p. 67). This is also a slight modification from Broadbent’s filter theory which proposed that all incoming information does have serial bottlenecks and therefore individual stimuli is than processed into working memory based on some physical characteristic. There are also pros and cons that can be associated with Treisman’s Attenuation Theory. One of each is as follows: 

PRO - This allows individuals the opportunity to process multiple stimuli or messages while being filtered through the unattended channel based on word importance of each individual stimuli. This process is also known as the threshold effect. Stimuli with a low threshold are more likely to be filtered into one’s conscious awareness while stimuli with a high threshold, is more likely to get filtered out by one’s conscious awareness. One example of this could be when you are at a cocktail party and a friend and stranger call out your name at the same time.

Since, the friend has a familiar voice you may be more likely to hear that individual’s voice (stimuli) over that of the stranger’s voice. Different words also have different chances of making it through the unattended channel, due to something called a threshold effect. This is defined as the minimum amount of activation that it takes to produce a conscious awareness of particular stimuli. One major benefit of this process is that it offers individuals an opportunity to be in a multi-informational setting while choosing to acknowledge any words that may be considered most important and/or more appealing.

CON - This particular theory is unable to scientifically explain how semantic analysis works, which has also caused much controversy within the overall scientific community. This is because semantic analysis is a determination of how language acquires meaning. This process focuses on and can officially identify a relation or relationships/ between certain words, symbols, signs and/or phrases that explain cognition and language. This is also extremely important because a scientific explanation for this process must be acquired to enhance a theory’s overall level of reliability and validity.

Even though, there may be a lack in explaining how semantic analysis truly works with this theory, I still support the idea that this is exactly how humans beings choose selection in attention. This is because I choose to pay attention in the exact same manner on a daily basis. When more than one person is talking to me, I naturally tend to focus on (filter in) those who say something a certain way or whether they are more familiar to me, even though I’m cognitively aware of all others who are talking in the room. 

This theory can also explain why so many people seem to exhibit “selective attention” in most or all social settings. One other positive thing about this theory is that future research could be conducted to further address the lack in explanation concerning how semantic analysis really works. If this can be determined, it would certainly increase the level of reliability and validity that is presently associated with this theory. 

Reference:

Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY. 

2 EXAMPLES OF A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION FOR PROGRAM DESIGN & EVALUATION PROCESS

ASSESSING THE CASE OF SOPHIE & NATHAN FROM SOPHIE'S CHOICE. A FURTHER LOOK AT DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, SUBSTANCE ABUSE, POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER & SCHIZOPHRENIA

   

Recently, I watched a movie called “Sophie’s Choice.” Two of the main characters are named Sophie and Nathan who live at a boarding house in Brooklyn NY. Throughout the movie, these characters exhibit several different behaviors that may be due to individual mental illness. These behaviors also negatively affect how Sophie and Nathan interact within their personal relationship and socially with others. Therefore, the overall purpose of this work is to write a case evaluation that first diagnosis which mental disorder each character may have. I will then provide all pertinent findings, treatment recommendations and any ethical considerations that might apply during their overall assessment and treatment plans.

Case Name: Sophie Zawistowska

Background Information

Sophie is a polish catholic and survivor of the Holocaust. During her time there she was also forced to give up her daughter to be exterminated and her son was sent away never to be seen again. She doesn’t have a college level education but is bilingual and possesses a high level of overall writing and secretarial skills. These were acquired after working for her father translating documents during the Second World War. She is currently unemployed with no source of income so she relies on her boyfriend Nathan for financial support. She also believes that he saved her life because she was extremely ill after being released from the concentration camp and he provided her treatment. Sophie also has scars on her wrists from an attempted suicide but she did not disclose whether she received any psychological help to address the issues that may have caused this behavior. 

Behavioral Observations

Sophie is an extremely intelligent woman who always wears nice dresses and is well groomed. She interacts well with others but has a slight issue trying to fully understand the English language and which words should be used. Her mood is normally pleasant unless she experiences a psychological and/or physical altercation with her boyfriend Nathan or discusses certain remnants of her past. During these times she exhibits emotional behavior that is associated with being a battered woman or guilt and anxiety from certain choices that she made in her past. 

Diagnoses

309.81 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (Chronic Type)

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention:

Physical Abuse of Adult (V61.1)

Findings

After considering Sophie’s background information and current behavior, I would diagnose her with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The main reason for this diagnosis is because according to (DSM-IV-TR. 1995-2013), “when an individual who has been exposed to a traumatic event develops anxiety symptoms, reexperiencing of the event, and avoidance of stimuli related to the event lasting more than four weeks, they may be suffering from this particular Anxiety Disorder.” Research has also shown that most people who suffer with this disorder may have also experienced abandonment and/or severe neglect as children. 

In Sophie’s case, she was exposed to traumatic events that were threatening to the lives of her and her children. This included having to sacrifice the life of her only daughter to save her only son which caused intense feelings of fear, helplessness, and horror at the time of occurrence. Since, this increased level of trauma occurred I suspect that Sophie has continuously recalled the events through cognition of distressing mental images, perceptions or thoughts. However, since these may cause her great psychological distress, she chooses to use total avoidance of the events as a major coping mechanism. This includes continuously making a conscious effort to avoid all feelings, thoughts, or conversations associated with the events.

Since, Sophie lives her life trying to avoid these haunting aspects from her past, it has also caused a feeling of being detached or estranged from many others. One example of this is when she thinks about the "choice" that she made as a mother and it makes her believe that she has less worth than all other mothers. She also exhibits a slight restricted range of affect and high sense of a foreshortened future. Some examples of this are when she always tells Nathan that she is going to die and when telling Stingo that she’ll probably never be able to love him, live a normal life in Virginia or be a good mother for his children.

She also changes the room around at night because she can’t sleep and seems to exhibit an exaggerated startle response during certain physical situations with Nathan. I believe that she is exhibiting these behaviors because she doesn’t want to have nightmares that are associated with her past trauma or experience further physical abuse at the hands of her loving partner. Since, these issues have occurred for several years Sophie also exhibits significant levels of distress or impairment in other areas of functioning. Therefore, she has also become majorly dependent on Nathan to meet her social, economic, psychological and physical needs.

Furthermore, I also believe that Sophie has been a repeated victim of physical abuse during the course of her relationship with Nathan. This occurs because when he experiences certain symptoms associated with his mental illness while abusing substances, he becomes physically violent and aggressive toward her. There are also repeated scenes in the movie when she is crying and tries to conceal visible bruises that he has left on her body. Although, she says that his abusive behavior is okay and allows it to continue due to her extreme level of overall dependency on him.

Treatment Recommendations

When reviewing Sophie’s case, there are some major issues that would need to be addressed. The first one is her psychological need to use avoidance to deal with her past. This is a major issue because it’s preventing her from dealing with feelings of guilt and shame in an appropriate and healthy manner. I would also treat this issue by using one-on-one talk and exposure therapy. This way, she would be able to verbally expose issues from her past in a safe environment and learn coping skills that can be used to manage her overwhelming level of guilt and shame. 

Furthermore, I would also prescribe a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor to reduce the intensity of these negative feelings. This is because according to (Jaffe & Schub. 2012), “selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the first-line medications used to treat PTSD and are the only medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of PTSD.” Finally, I would refer Sophie to an agency that helps women who are victims of domestic violence. This is because she may be able to receive beneficial services like further counseling, a safer place to live and group therapy with other victims.  

Prognosis

When reviewing all of the details of Sophie’s case, I don’t believe that she would do well in treatment and that her overall prognosis is less than fair. This is because if she continues to live in her current environment, further abuse from Nathan will most likely occur and she won’t have the positive support system that is needed to fully recover from her severe level of long-term PTSD. Having a positive support system and acquiring treatment are also major requirements for people who develop this disorder after experiencing trauma because it can reduce symptoms and initiate a faster recovery time. However, up to this point she has only received positive support from their mutual friend Stingo who knows little about PTSD. 

I am also confident that she will never acquire the motivation that is needed to end her relationship with Nathan due to her growing dependency and skewed belief that he is her savior. Therefore, her feelings of guilt and shame will probably get worse and she may also begin to experience issues like low self-esteem and worthlessness due to ongoing occurrences of severe psychological and physical abuse.

Ethical/Legal Considerations

When conducting an assessment and treatment plan for Sophie, I will also need to address any ethical concerns that may apply. This is because following ethical standards will help ensure that her rights are protected throughout the overall process. Four specific ethical codes that may also apply to her individual case include:

1. Informed Consent – According to this standard, professionals must inform participants of all features which might affect his or her willingness to participate. This is important because clients will be informed about the overall purpose and it gives them an option to participate or withdraw. I will also implement this by having Sophie sign a written document that identifies the overall content and purpose of the assessment and treatment plan.   

2. Debriefing – This states that all professionals should debrief each client before, during and after the process. This is important because it can ensure that clients are aware of all beginning, ongoing, and final results that may be obtained. This can also allow the opportunity to address any misconceptions that clients may have during the overall process. I could also implement this by ensuring that Sophie was kept informed about all important findings.

3. Protection From Harm – This means that I will need to get permission from Sophie prior to treatment and if any aspects of treatment may be harmful to her I will avoid using them.

4. Confidentiality – This standard protects the rights of clients by mandating that personal information can only be released under specific circumstances. Following this law is important because it can ensure that no harm occurs to the client due to personal information being released in a malicious or damaging manner to third party members. However, according to (BACB Guidelines For Responsible Conduct), a behavior analyst can “disclose confidential information without the consent of the individual only as mandated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid purpose, such as (1) to provide needed professional services to the individual or organizational client, (2) to obtain appropriate professional consultations, (3) to protect the client or others from harm, or (4) to obtain payment for services, in which instance disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve the purpose” (p.4). Since, this is the case I may be required to report some of Sophie’s personal information to specific third parties that can further assist her. This is because she is a victim of domestic violence which is a crime and she may also be a danger to herself due to an unstable psychological state and/or mental disorder.

Client Name: Nathan

Background Information

Nathan is 29 years of age and from a Jewish descent. He currently lives in Brooklyn with his girlfriend Sophie and states that he is a biologist but his brother says that he actually works at a library. He claims that he graduated from Harvard University but his brother dispels that lie as well by saying that Nathan has no college education and is regularly abusing cocaine. Furthermore, he was diagnosed with Paranoid Schizophrenia at the age of 10 and has been in and out of mental institutions. The symptoms that are associated with this particular disorder are also still present.

Behavioral Observations

Nathan is an extremely intelligent man who often wears nice suits and is well groomed. He interacts well with others unless he experiences a psychotic episode. This is when his mood changes and he becomes extremely agitated, angry, paranoid, and delusional. During this time, he also psychologically and physically abuses Sophie on a severe level. Furthermore, he also has delusions of grandeur which make him believe that he is a brilliant biologist and almost every aspect of his daily life is consumed by this fabricated way of thinking. 

Diagnosis

295.30 (Schizophrenia) Paranoid Type - This type of schizophrenia involves a preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations. In order to diagnose a client with this disorder, he or she must also still have organized speech and non-catatonic behavior.

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention:

Substance Abuse and possible Bi-Polar Disorder 

Findings

After reviewing Nathan’s background information and long-term behavior, I diagnosed him with Paranoid Schizophrenia because he meets the criteria for that disorder. This is because he exhibits the following symptoms and/or behavior:

1. Clinically significant distress – He feels bad after he hurts Sophie due to his disorder.

2. Mood changes with periodic hypomania – He becomes agitated and physically abuses Sophie.

3. Anger that is dealt with by using repression, denial or paranoid projections – He often psychologically attacks Sophie by calling her names and accusing her of cheating on him.

4. Delusions of grandeur or auditory hallucinations – He believes that he graduated from Harvard University and is a brilliant biologist who is working on groundbreaking research.

Treatment Recommendations

When reviewing Nathan’s case, there are major issues that need to be immediately addressed. The first one will be to try and reduce the overall level of symptoms that are related to Paranoid Schizophrenia. According to (Butcher., Mineka & Hooley. 2010), an individual with this type of schizophrenia “shows a history of increasing suspiciousness and of severe difficulties in interpersonal relationships” (p. 463). The symptoms that seem to be most relevant with Nathan are his mood changes with hypomania, paranoid projections, anger, and delusions of grandeur. 

The main reason that these symptoms should be treated as soon as possible is because he is causing psychological and physical harm to Sophie when they appear. These symptoms are also preventing him from being able to live in a normal state of reality. I would begin treating his disorder by verbally teaching him certain coping skills that can be used to manage these symptoms and prescribe an antipsychotic medication to try and reduce the intensity of symptoms and number of episodes. 

Furthermore, I would also refer Nathan for an additional assessment to address possible Bi-Polar Disorder and to agencies that help with domestic violence and substance abuse. This is because he may be able to receive beneficial services like further counseling, a neutral place for discussion, and group therapy with others who are experiencing the same issues.

Prognosis

When reviewing all of the details of Nathan’s case, I don’t believe that he will do well in treatment and that his overall prognosis is poor. This is because if he continues to live in his current environment, further abuse to Sophie will most likely occur when mood changes with hypomania and/or paranoia are present. Therefore, he won’t have the positive support system that is needed to combat symptoms that are associated with his severe level of long-term Paranoid Schizophrenia. Having a positive support system and acquiring treatment are also major requirements for people who develop this disorder because it may reduce these symptoms. 

However, up to this point he has been in and out of several mental institutions and has not improved. I am also confident that he will never acquire the motivation that is needed to end his relationship with Sophie due to his growing obsession and skewed belief that he is her grand savior. Therefore, his symptoms will probably only get worse and he may also begin to experience issues like self-hate and depression due to his continuous psychologically and physically abuse toward Sophie.

Ethical/Legal Considerations

When conducting an assessment and treatment plan for Nathan, I would also need to address any ethical concerns that may apply. This is because following ethical standards would help ensure that his rights were protected throughout the overall process. Five specific ethical codes that may apply to her individual case include:

1. Informed Consent – This means that I will need to inform Nathan about all features that might affect his willingness to participate. I will also implement this by asking him to sign a document that identifies the content and purpose of the assessment and treatment plan.  

3. Debriefing – This means that I will need to debrief Nathan before, during and after the assessment and treatment process. This is important because it will ensure that he’s aware of all beginning, ongoing, and final results that are obtained. This will also allow the opportunity to address any misconceptions that he may have during the overall process.

4. Protection From Harm – This means that I will need to acquire permission before treating Nathan and if any aspects of treatment may harmful, I will avoid using them.  

5. Confidentiality – This states that personal information can only be released under specific circumstances. The BACB Guidelines For Responsible Conduct also state that a professional can disclose confidential information without a client’s consent to protect the client or others from harm. In Nathan’s case, I would be forced to release some of his personal information to third parties. This is because he carries weapons, has threatened others safety and has already caused severe psychological and physical harm to Sophie. Since he is experiencing delusions of grandeur about who he is and what he has become, I also don’t believe that he is competent enough to make important decisions so involuntary hospitalization may be required in the future.  

Summary

This was written after watching a movie called “Sophie’s Choice” which includes two main characters named Sophie and Nathan. There are several scenes in the movie that depict different behaviors which may be associated with individualized mental illness. These behaviors and/or symptoms also negatively affect how Sophie and Nathan are able to interact as a couple and with others in various social settings. Therefore, the overall purpose of this work was to first provide a case evaluation for each character that confirms which mental disorder/s they may have. I then followed each diagnosis with any pertinent findings, treatment recommendations and ethical considerations that may apply to each case. 

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). BehaveNet: APA Diagnostic Classification DSM-IV-TR. Retrieved on February 1 2013 via the World Wide Web at http://behavenet.com/apa-diagnostic-classification-dsm-iv-tr 

Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2004). Guidelines for responsible conduct for behavior analysts. Retrieved on February 2 2012 via Kaplan Online at http://content-asc.kaplan.edu.edgesuite.net/PS502_1004A/images/product/Guidelines%20for%20Responsible%20Conduct.pdf

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th Ed.). Boston, MA. Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Higher Education.

Pakula, Alan (Director and Producer). (1982). Sophie’s Choice. (DVD). Lions Gate

Schub, T., Jaffe, S. (2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved on February 3 2013 via the Kaplan Library at http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=b008d357-ffce-4487-b4b6-7d2bd37572c9%40sessionmgr11&vid=9&hid=2

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE: HOW SPECIFIC BRAIN STRUCTURES CAUSE CERTAIN BEHAVIOR/S

             After reviewing several different articles and books about cognitive neuroscience, I chose to discuss one that addressed how specific brain structures cause certain behavior/s. According to (Lezak, Howieson & Loring. 2004), “the brain is an intricately patterned complex of small and delicate structures. Three major anatomical divisions of the brain succeed one another along the brain stem: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain” (p. 42). Behavior can then be determined based on how information is processed and flows through structures within these divisions. Some of these structures are also as follows:

RAS - This is known as the reticular activating system and it is located in the midbrain. Its function is to control one’s level of wakefulness and alertness so an individual has the ability to react to certain stimuli.  

Thalamus - This is located at the top of the brain stem and it is responsible for relaying sensory messages and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, while also regulating ones consciousness, alertness, and sleep.

Hypothalamus - This is located under the thalamus. Its main function is to regulate things like emotions, hunger, sex drive, thirst and many other major drives.

Amygdala - This includes two almond-shaped masses of neurons that are located on each side of the thalamus. Their primary function is associated with regulation of certain emotions, like anger or fear. This is also a very important part of individual brain structure because if people and animals didn’t have these, they may not be affected by certain stimuli that would normally be frightening, personally threatening or dangerous.

Cerebellum - This is located at the base of the brain, directly behind the brainstem. Its main function is to maintain balance and coordination of complex movements, along with controlling certain responses associated with perception and cognition, like pleasure and fear.

Somatosensory Cortex - This is located in the midbrain and it processes information when affected by various systems in the body that are sensitive to touch. This sensitivity can include pain, temperature, and the proprioception system. It is also highly sensitive which allows people to detect and interpret a large variety of sensations.

Frontal Lobes - The main function of these is to receive and coordinate messages from other lobes, regulate motor control, speech and other higher functions.

What Does This Tell Us About Brain Structures and Human Behavior/s?

After reading this previous research, one thing that I have learned is that all behaviors are exhibited based on different structures within our brain. A second thing is that the brain is way more complex than I had initially realized. While, a third thing that I have learned is that several psychological/physical behaviors would not occur if it wasn’t for these structures and that they can diminish or be altered when these structures are damaged.

Conclusion

Although, this article was very thorough and extremely informative, I believe that further research should be conducted. This is because the article could not determine all of the affects that individual brain structures have on human behavior/s. Therefore, I am confident that further research may uncover even more evidence to prove how brain structures and human behavior/s are related. This process can also be completed by identifying further correlations among these two factors.   

Reference:

Lezak, M., Howieson, D., & Loring, D. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4^th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

UNDERSTANDING THE CONNECTION BETWEEN BELIEF PERSEVERANCE, CRITICAL THINKING & COMMON SENSE

According to (Douglas. 2000), belief perseverance is “when people form a belief based on initial evidence, the belief will be resistant to contradictory evidence, and when people form a theory based on erroneous evidence and later discover that the evidence is false, the belief often survives such discrediting” (p. 134). There are also different strategies that can be used to overcome belief perseverance. Two of these strategies include the use of:

1. Critical Thinking – This is when someone will choose to believe a certain thought because it is based on observations through environmental factors, specific data, or other factual evidence. Critical thinking usually lacks the bias that may normally be present within average home, school and/or social beliefs.

2. Common Sense – This is based on factual opinions of average people about a specific phenomenon. Normally, these opinions are considered factual because they are thought to be common knowledge among most members of a society, population or culture. This thought process is also not usually extremely jeopardized by prejudice or biased thinking.

There are also several times when people are unable to overcome belief perseverance. Two examples could include prejudice and religious beliefs that have been conditioned by respected loved ones or those that have been acquired through a lack of critical thinking and/or common sense. The negative consequences of this skewed belief system can create further issues and will depend on each individual situation. One example is if a Caucasian person chose to be prejudice against an Afro American by starting a physical fight with that person. The initial victim could then end up killing the person who chose to act out based on his or her prejudice beliefs. Therefore, the consequence of prejudice thinking in this particular situation would be premature death of the Caucasian.   

According to previous research, there are also many similarities and differences between common sense and science that are based on which area of psychology is being considered. One particular area that common sense does not play a huge role in is that of neurophysiology. Although, common sense is considered an extremely valuable attribute when applied to the areas of social psychology and social cognition. Common sense is also categorized in three ways which include “a set of shared fundamental assumptions,” “a set of maxims or shared beliefs,” and “as a shared way of thinking” (Fletcher. 1984. p. 1). These are viewed as three major similarities between common sense and science because this thought process is shared by many within a specific population, culture or society. Furthermore, three differences between common sense and science are as follows:

1. Common sense is based on only preconceived ideas while science acquires factual data that can support or dispute those initial ideas.

2. Common sense can include prejudice or biased thinking but scientific theories are designed after attempting to eliminate these potentially harmful factors.

3. Common sense can lack validity but science tries to reduce or eliminate this possible issue before sharing any newly acquired information with the general public.

References:

Douglas, N. (2000). Enemies of critical thinking: Lessons from social psychology research. Reading Psychology. Retrieved on September 8 2011 via the World Wide Web at http://web.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=5040acc5-a3b0-42d6 911e-2250afb06064%40sessionmgr111&vid=2&hid=21

Fletcher, G. (1984). American Psychologist: Psychology and Common Sense. University of Waikalo Hamilton, New Zealand. Retrieved on September 8 2011 via the World Wide Web at http://contentasc.kaplan.edu.edgesuite.net/PS501_1004A/images/product/Psychology%20&%20Common%20Sense.pdf