EIGHT HOURS OF MANAGING: APPLICATION OF THEORY INTO CASUAL OBSERVATION

Crystal Czubernet                                                                                                               

Susan Lancaster

Gregg Martinez                                                                                                           

Alexandra McDonald

Eight Hours of Managing: Application of Theory Into Casual Observation

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

OL554 – Management Philosophy and Practice

Week 6: Team Submission

December 7, 2013
Dr. Bridget Olsen

Introduction

Mintzberg (2009) stated: “Managing is not one of these things but all of them: it is controlling and doing and dealing and thinking and leading and deciding and more, not added up but blended together" (pp. 44). In order to better understand management styles and/or theories, we conducted manager observations and compared the experiences to the Mintzberg Model. It is important to note that “casual observations lack statistically valid experimental design and are likely to yield unreliable information” (Wilhere, 2002, pp. 22); team members have diverse relationships with their manager, completed differing observation hours, and concentrated on certain traits exhibited by the manager. Although members were completing the same task, their shadowing experiences were unique. Uniqueness of members’ experiences is a result of shadowing managers exhibiting differences in style/managerial approach, vocational industries, and amount of time shadowing. For the purpose of this paper, sections are broken down into sections to include: an explanation of the Mintzberg Model: Information, People, and Action; introduction of managers; comparison of observation findings of each plane; and a conclusion integrating overall experience and its relativity to the Mintzberg Model.

The Model

Henry Mintzberg utilized behavioral observations of five chief executives to generate the model now known as the Mintzberg Model (Mintzberg, 2009). He found that a “manager’s job was characterized by many brief episodes carried out with a wide variety of different people from inside and out-side the organization” (Carroll & Gillen, 1987, pp. 39). This theory supports the idea that “managing takes place on three planes, from the conceptual to the concrete: with information, through people, and to action directly” (Mintzberg, 2009, pp. 49). For the purposes of this paper, we will briefly describe each plane here (Mintzberg, 2009):

Information – Leading through communication and controlling internal and external factors. According to Mintzberg (2009), “to manage through information means to sit two steps removed from the ultimate purpose of managing: information is processed by the manager to encourage other people to take the necessary actions” (pp. 52).

            Internal Communication – Monitoring and nerve central

            External Communication – Spokesperson, nerve central, and disseminating

Through People – Leading internally and linking externally. Mintzberg (2009) describes managing through people is to “move one step close to action but still to remain removed from it” (pp. 63).

            Internal leading – Developing, team building, energizing, and strengthening culture

External Linking – Transmitting, buffering, networking, representing, and convincing/conveying

Action Directly – Leading by doing what needs to be done internally, dealing with the external. Mintzberg (2009) emphasized the importance of efficient action, one that is well informed to make robust decisions utilizing both the information and people planes.

            Internal Handling – Handling disturbances and managing projects
            External Dealing – Mobilizing support and building coalitions

Choosing a Manager and Observation Concentrations

Members began by establishing a team charter to develop a strategy of observation to ensure a seamless final product and that members are held accountable with a designated task. Members were responsible for identifying a manager to shadow and complete a minimum of 5 hours of observation. However, hours of shadowing varied among members. To avoid discrepancies we developed four primary components to focus on during observations:

Time management – Email correspondence, meetings, shadowing subordinates

Conflict Management – Motivational strategy and resolving conflicts

Delegation Style – How to delegate to ensure flow of system

Leadership Style – Micromanaging vs. Collaborative

The Managers

For the purpose of this paper, we will introduce the managers shadowed:

Dr. Breen – Newly hired Provost for a not-for-profit college in Southern California, focusing on Academics, Student Services, and Admissions. Manager has over 30 years of higher education experience.

Mr. Mitra – Newly promoted Assistant Dean of Student Affairs for a not-for-profit college in New York City, focusing on 11 areas within Student Affairs. Manager has over 10 years of higher education experience.

Ms. Smith – Finance Manager, recently resigned during observation, for a not-for-profit Domestic Violence Service Center. Manager has 11 years of experience.

Matt – Team Manager, 15 years of experience and Walter – Head Contract Manager, 10 years of experience. Both work for an International call center that contracts with several leading organizations.

Information Plane

After evaluating each members report, we noticed many similarities in management in regards to the information plane presented by the Mintzberg Model. One similarity was the manager’s ability to lead through monitoring and nerve center. All managers successfully executed communication, ensuring that employees performed effectively and appropriately, as well as delegation, guaranteeing completion of duties. A second similarity is that all managers served as a spokesperson and disseminated, passing information internally and externally when needed. However, the level of disseminating varied among managers based on the individual needs of each organization.

Although these similarities exist, there are also differences on the information plane. The first major difference is that one manager had difficulty delegating her duties while the other three managers were able to successfully delegate. Additionally, this manager also experienced a higher level of overall performance pressure associated with internal communication and control. The team member attributed this manager’s hesitation to a personal preference to independently complete tasks. A second major difference between managers was their ability to stand as spokesperson and disseminate information. The reason for this difference can be attributed to the organizational needs and individual needs in relation to the number of people employed and volume of tasks that must be completed.

People Plane

            During this process, it was clear that each manager had significant experience working with people. For example, each manager believed that establishing and strengthening the culture within the organization was important to productivity. A uniform culture encouraged people’s best efforts because they align with efforts of the organization. We also found that all managers focused on developing individuals; they may view themselves as a coach, trainer, teacher or counselor, but each manager found a way to integrate individual development in their managing style. Mintzberg describes the best method to develop individuals is when managers help people develop themselves (Mintzberg, 2009).

A major difference that we observed among the four managers was that half focused on team development, while the others did not. Mintzberg wrote that developing teams, “resolves conflict within and between these groups so that they can get on with their work (pp. 68). Some managers believed that team development was an important component to organizational success. The individuals who did not focus on team development focused on individual development. For example, one of the managers’ functions was focused around finance, which appeared to be a less focused on teams than another manager. In contrast, another managers’ function was standing as a Dean, creating faculty/staff developmental teams.

Action Plane

While observing the action plane, we found that two managers had difficulty in achieving success in this plane. One manager had many items on their daily agenda, which we attributed to tension between employees and executive leaders. This tension resulted in feelings of apprehension and fear of failure, leading to inefficient and ineffective workplace action. The second manager had difficulty getting relevant financial information in a timely manner to the Board of Directors and the Executive Director, which resulted in the manager making uninformed and illogical decisions. Both managers were not efficient in working the people or information plane, making actions feel unattainable. In addition, due to manager’s inability to take action, the information plane and people plane were directly affected creating a negative cyclic environment for all employees. Truly, if a manager is not engaging in one area of the model, the rest of the model suffers.

            In contrast, the other two managers were busy and needed dealing and linking in order to successfully achieve their workflow. One manager embodied the effort needed to set forth through the action plane. He assumed a leadership role for eleven areas within Student Affairs almost assuring he will have all the necessary information to make a robust decision. He also embodied the transformational leadership as a method of inspiring growth and delegation of work. The only downfall this manager exhibited was to take on too much as he consistently came in early, stayed late, and worked through his lunch breaks. The second manager was also busy utilized the action plane to achieve her workflow. However, this manager chose a more transactional style of leadership through directing individuals on how or when to do or say specific things in order to accomplish their goal. In general, the form of dealing and linking of both managers appeared to help refine their people and information plane of the Mintzberg Model. Interestingly enough, we now understand the meaning of Mintzberg circular planes.

Conclusion

Closing this experience, members developed an increased awareness of the function of a manager and a better understanding of how theory application can aid in understanding the differences in management style. Members were able to apply the Mintzberg Model while shadowing their manager, noting manager style of giving and retrieving information, interaction of leading and linking with employees and outside resources, and their ability to put thought into action through internal handling and external dealing. Some members found all three planes a success through their shadowing experience, while some found a mixture of two planes or found no success in any of the Mintzberg planes. In general, we found varied results because of manager’s personal style, size of the organization, organizational demands on the employees, and number of people employed. It was clear to us, through these observations, that without good information, people, and action planes, a company will eventually fail. In regards to findings of manager’s ability to manage their time, solve conflicts, delegate appropriately, and leadership style effectiveness/ineffectiveness, the same variance was found. Overall, our team found that Mintzberg provided some light and wisdom when observing managers and acting as a manager when he wrote (2009, pp. 89): “We don’t need people-oriented, information-orientated or action-oriented managers; we need managers who operate on all three planes. 

References

Carroll, S. J., & Gillen, D. J. (1987). Are the classical management functions useful in describing managerial work?. The Academy of Management Review, 12(1), 39.

Mintzberg, H. (2009). Managing. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

Wilhere, G. F. (2002). Adaptive management in habitat conservation plans. Conservation Biology, 16(1), 22.

UNDERSTANDING MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP

Susan Lancaster

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

OL554 – Management Philosophy and Practice

Instructor: Dr. Bridgit Olsen

November 26, 2013  

According to (Mintzberg. 2009. p. 8) over the years “it has become fashionable to distinguish leaders from managers” but he questions whether this should be occurring. This is because when considering management and leadership, it can be extremely difficult to distinguish the difference between these concepts while in practice. The reason for this is because he believes that management skills are needed to effectively lead and leadership skills are needed to effectively manage. 
Since this may be the case, I think that it is important to try and ensure that leaders and/or managers understand this when practicing in a management and/or leadership position. Understanding management and leadership can also be accomplished by implementing a specified training program that addresses these concepts with practicing managers. Therefore, my overall purpose of this paper is to further address this topic by discussing what management and leadership are according to Mintzberg’s Model of Management and how I would teach managers about these concepts by implementing a specified training program.

What is Effective Management and Leadership?

Throughout history, several theories of management have been designed in an attempt to better understand the overall concept of effective management and/or leadership. After considering these theories, I believe that (Mintzberg. 2009), best explains the overall concept of effective managing and/or leading. This is because he states that “managing takes place on three planes, from the conceptual to the concrete: with information, through people, and to action directly” (p. 49). A further evaluation of these planes is as follows:

Information – This is done when managers lead through communicating and controlling internal and external factors. Two components that are included with internal communication are monitoring and nerve center. While, three components included with external communication are spokesperson, nerve center and disseminating. Furthermore, five components that are included with internal control are designing, delegating, deeming, distributing, and designating.

Through People – This means that managers will lead internally and link externally. Four components that are included with internal leading include developing individuals, team building, energizing individuals and strengthening culture. While, five components that are associated with external linking include transmitting, buffering, networking, representing and convincing/conveying.

Action Directly – This means that managers will lead by doing what needs to be done internally and while dealing with the external. Two components that are associated with internal doing include handling disturbances and managing projects. While, two components included with external dealing are mobilizing support and building strong coalitions.

Mintzberg also supports the idea that effective management and leadership can be affected based on which position each manager is in. He states that there are three main levels of management that determine the overall function/s in each position. These levels include “top managers” who have power and control over middle and bottom managers, “middle managers” who have power and control over bottom managers, and “bottom managers” who has limited power and control over subordinate workers but no other managers. Therefore, it is important to address these levels with managers in practice, so they can better understand what is required.

How I Would Teach Managers About Management and Leadership?

When considering Mintzberg’s Management Theory, I believe that it may be used to successfully teach managers the slight distinction between management and leadership, and initiate a higher level of effective management and/or leadership while in practice. I would accomplish this by teaching managers about this theory through a required onsite training class which also addresses the reasons that I support it.

The first reason that I support Mintzberg’s theory is because it makes managers the center of focus, which is needed to effectively communicate and control behaviors or other factors that internally and externally affect the organization. The second reason that I support this theoretical framework is because it addresses the importance of leading and linking for the common good of the people and organization. This is important because if people are more successful through implementation of self-building techniques, then there may be a higher chance that managers and organizations will also become more successful.

A third reason that I support Mintzberg’s theory is because it fosters the idea that managers must take action through proper doing and dealing with the tasks at hand. This means that managers will need to be qualified enough to ensure that all aspects associated with the position are effectively managed. I also think that this is extremely important because there are so many organizations in today’s world that experience reduced success due to ineffective management and leadership.

I am confident that if proper training of managers is implemented in the correct manner, then most of them will be able to understand the slight distinction between these concepts. During this overall process, they can also acquire a better understanding of what their particular position entails to succeed. If this occurs, it may then increase the overall success rate of workers and overall organization as well.

Conclusion

Over the years, some people choose to distinguish management from leadership by trying to separate the two concepts. However, Mintzberg believes that this should not be done because they are two sides of the same coin. This means that managers must have management skills to effectively lead and leadership skills to effectively manage. Therefore, it is essential that managers understand the slight distinction between these concepts and how each can be accomplished at the most effective level while in practice.

This understanding can also be accomplished by implementing a specified training program that further addresses these aspects of managing and leading with practicing managers. Therefore, my overall purpose of this paper was to further address this topic by discussing what management and leadership are according to Mintzberg’s Model and how I would teach managers about these concepts through a specified training program.

Reference:

Mintzberg, H. (2009). Managing. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. San Francisco, Ca.

WHY SOME KIDS MAY NOT FOLLOW RULES DUE TO CONDUCT DISORDER (THE CASE OF RAUL & JOSE)

Case History

“Raul is 14 years old. His younger brother, Jose, is 13. They were raised together by their parents. The two boys, along with their younger sister, Maria, age 8, were recently removed from their parents’ custody by Arizona Child Protective Services. 

The two boys have experienced regular physical and verbal abuse by their father, Alberto Lopez. Mr. and Mrs. Lopez are illegal immigrants from Mexico. They are both migrant workers in the Western USA, moving continuously throughout California, Oregon, Arizona, Idaho, and Colorado to follow the availability of seasonal farm work. The children have not attended school regularly due to the family’s mobility, and Raul has often been left in charge of the younger two children when the Lopez’s have been working long days, sometimes seven days a week during picking season.

The family has had two encounters in the past year with INS, but has escaped by fleeing and hiding. They live in fear of deportation and/or arrest. Mr. and Mrs. Lopez do their best to feed and clothe their children while also sending money home to family members in need in Mexico.  Money is very tight, and resources are limited.

Mr. Lopez had bouts of drinking before he and his family slipped over the US border three years ago. But since that time, due to the stresses of migrant life, he has abused alcohol regularly. He will drink whatever he can afford or obtain free of charge. Mr. Lopez often becomes violent when he is drunk. He routinely loses patience with his children, demeans them verbally, blames them for his stresses, and beats them with his hands or belt. 

He also batters his wife when he is drunk. He breaks objects and/or throws them at his family. The children have all suffered bruises, contusions, and occasional broken bones, for which medical care has not been available. When Mr. Lopez is sober, he hates himself for how he is treating his family, and he sees a priest whenever he can to confess his behaviors and start again. The family often attends Catholic Church services in their native language, run by Catholic missionaries. 

The three children came to the attention of CPS because of Raul’s behavior. Raul was caught setting fire to a German Shepherd who was outside in the backyard of family in a nearby town.  The family was away for the day. Raul had smashed a window and entered the house, and stolen jewelry and coca cola. He ran from the police when they arrived at the house. When interviewed, he was defiant and denied any wrongdoing. 

Others in the community report that Raul has been involved in fights with their children, and that he is often seen verbally taunting other kids. The police picked up Raul, along with his younger brother and sister, who were apparently horrified at what Raul had been doing to the dog. Jose and Maria were trying to save the dog.

While left in charge of his younger siblings, Raul has been verbally and physically abusive to them, “to keep the discipline”, he says. He is worried about his younger brother, Jose, because he believes that Jose “acts like a little girl.” Jose appears nervous and shy. He speaks in a barely audible voice. He has problems getting out of bed in the morning, daydreams most of the day, bites his nails continuously, wets the bed at night, cries a lot, does not seem to have any interest in sports or physical activities, and does not connect well with other children. 

When interviewed by CPS, Jose seemed to blame himself for how his father is acting, believing that he is the main cause of the family’s stress. Jose did seem very bonded to his younger sister, Maria, however, and seemed to view himself as her protector” (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2004).

Diagnoses For Raul:

After reviewing all details of this case and AXIS I diagnoses which are listed in the DSM-IV-TR, I believe that Raul may be experiencing:

Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence

·         Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders: Conduct Disorder (312.8)

Adjustment Disorders (with): Disturbance of Conduct (309.3)

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention (AXIS II)

·         Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Condition (316)

·         Relational Problems: Parent-Child (V61.20), Sibling (V61.8)

·         Problems Related to Abuse or Neglect: Neglect of Child (V61.21) Physical Abuse of Child (V61.21)

·         Child or Adolescent Antisocial Behavior (V71.02)

·         Phase of Life Problem (V62.89)

According to (Facts for Families. 2004), “conduct disorder refers to a group of behavioral and emotional problems in youngsters. Children and adolescents with this disorder have great difficulty following rules and behaving in a socially acceptable way” (p. 1). Since, these children suffer from certain behavioral disorders that cause lack of control they may also experience several social problems in a normal setting if the disorder is left untreated. Some of these problems can include bullying and intimidating others, initiating physical altercations, forcing sexual activity, and using weapons to harm people and/or animals. 

In a “normal” society, children who suffer from conduct disorder may also be viewed as bad or delinquent instead of being evaluated by a mental health professional. If this lack of adequate support and treatment continues with Raul, then he may also experience oppositional defiant disorder as he gets older. This may be especially true in his case because he might eventually begin to defy the “authoritative” abuse that is occurring at the hands of his father. Therefore, treatment of his suspected diagnoses must be addressed as soon as possible.

Diagnoses For Jose:

After reviewing all details of this case and AXIS 1 diagnoses which are listed in the DSM-IV-TR, I also believe that Jose may be experiencing:

Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence

·         Pervasive Developmental Disorders: Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (299.10)

·         Elimination Disorders: Enuresis (307.6)

Adjustment Disorders (with): Mixed Disturbance of Emotions and Conduct (309.4)

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention (AXIS II)

·         Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Condition (316)

·         Relational Problems: Parent-Child (V61.20), Sibling (V61.8)

·         Problems Related to Abuse or Neglect: Neglect of Child (V61.21) Physical Abuse of Child (V61.21)

·         Child or Adolescent Antisocial Behavior (V71.02)

·         Age-Related Cognitive Decline (780.9)

·         Phase of Life Problem (V62.89)

Adjustment disorder with mixed disturbance of emotions and conduct usually occurs due to a stressful life event and may cause negative behavioral changes and a lack of emotional stability. This disorder normally affects children who are under the age of 18 and symptoms may include anxiety, sadness and/or a disruption of normal routine. When this disorder is present, it may be possible to affectively overcome these symptoms with the right support. Therefore, a suitable treatment plan will need to be implemented to address this possible disorder. If this occurs, it is also possible that many of Jose’s other disorders and/or conditions will improve or be reduced over time.

Recommendations For Treatment

After evaluating this case, I also believe that these boys may be experiencing different disorders and/or other conditions for several reasons. However, the main factor could be due to a difference in cognitive processing of incoming environmental stimuli. This is because most individuals have the ability to process symptoms of trauma like fear, anger, helplessness and sadness on different levels. This may also be individually determined based on what coping mechanisms are most needed to successfully support psychological and/or physical survival. Regardless, of varying symptoms, there are several strategies which can be used with both Raul and Jose to address these individual disorders and/or other conditions. These include:

1. Early Intervention – This is a key factor in order to offer the best possible support and treatment before behavior/s get worse.

2. Comprehensive Evaluation – This will help determine whether Raul and Jose may be suffering from other existing disorders like (PTSD) due to years of physical and psychological abuse. If this is the case, then that could also be what initially contributed to the onset of their current disorders and/or other conditions.

3. Treatment Plan – A trained professional can devise an individualized plan for Raul and Jose by gathering information and support from teachers, family members, and any pertinent medical staff that may exist. This plan may also include behavioral therapy and psychotherapy which can help both boys control these maladaptive behaviors and better adjust within their psychological and physical environments. However, in this case, I don’t believe that these treatment plans will be successful unless the parents take an active approach by obtaining suitable treatment for their issues as well.

4. Medication – This can be prescribed to Raul and Jose, because they are exhibiting issues with specific behavior/s that may be directly related to their individual disorders.

References:

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Facts for Families/Conduct Disorder 2004. Retrieved on September 19 2012 via the World Wide Web at http://www.aacap.org/galleries/FactsForFamilies/33_conduct_disorder.pdf

BehaveNet: APA Diagnostic Classification DSM-IV-TR. Copyright (2000). American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved on December 20 2012 via the World Wide Web at http://behavenet.com/apa-diagnostic-classification-dsm-iv-tr

INNATE BEHAVIOR - WHAT IS ETHNOCENTRISM?

According to (Chance. 2009), “learning takes up where reflexes, model action patterns, and general behavior traits leave off. It enables the organism to adapt to situations for which it’s largely innate behavior is inadequate” (p. 24). Since, certain innate behavior may be considered maladaptive within many aspects of our society, it can also have detrimental effects for most people.

One example of how learning can cause maladaptive behavior is when people develop ethnocentrism. This is identified as biased thinking or actions that negatively affect proper interaction between various cultures within our nation. It may also occur because there are different attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors among these cultures. These undesirable behaviors can also exist for generations and are often learned through social and home environments. One example of this is as follows:

A 45 year old white male has come to my office because he has been extremely depressed for many years. When completing my initial assessment, the client discloses that most of his worry is due to issues that he’s been having at work. This is because most fellow employees are Mexicans and he doesn’t want to work with those people. He also states that they are stealing jobs from Caucasian Americans who deserve them way more. When I ask him why he believes this, he states that his grandfather and father never liked Mexicans because they are all bad. Since, my client feels this way he has also been warned about possible termination due to exhibiting prejudice behavior. His boss has also stated that these personal views are extremely inappropriate within an equal opportunity employment setting. My client understands this policy, however; he still believes that Mexicans do not deserve American jobs.

Since, my client feels this way, I am confident that he may be experiencing ethnocentrism due to opinions which were learned in childhood. This is because he may have been taught that Caucasian Americans are better than other cultures. His skewed way of thinking is also causing problems within his work place and may negatively affect his current employment. This is because the views that he is expressing are considered innate behavior and are not shared or supported by most others in the company.

Reference:

Chance, P. (2009). Learning and behavior. (6 ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

WHAT IS SELECTIVE ATTENTION?

Many researchers, scientists, psychologists and other professionals believe that as human beings, there are times when we can only process incoming information by focusing on one oral message or visual object at a time. This is due to something called serial bottlenecks, which is the point when all incoming information may no longer be processed at the same time because it interferes with the procession of an individual stimuli and/or message.

After reviewing several selection in attention theories, I chose to address Treisman’s Attenuation Theory. According to (Anderson. 2010), “this model hypothesized that certain messages would be weakened but not filtered out entirely on the basis of their physical properties” (p. 67). This is also a slight modification from Broadbent’s filter theory which proposed that all incoming information does have serial bottlenecks and therefore individual stimuli is than processed into working memory based on some physical characteristic. There are also pros and cons that can be associated with Treisman’s Attenuation Theory. One of each is as follows: 

PRO - This allows individuals the opportunity to process multiple stimuli or messages while being filtered through the unattended channel based on word importance of each individual stimuli. This process is also known as the threshold effect. Stimuli with a low threshold are more likely to be filtered into one’s conscious awareness while stimuli with a high threshold, is more likely to get filtered out by one’s conscious awareness. One example of this could be when you are at a cocktail party and a friend and stranger call out your name at the same time.

Since, the friend has a familiar voice you may be more likely to hear that individual’s voice (stimuli) over that of the stranger’s voice. Different words also have different chances of making it through the unattended channel, due to something called a threshold effect. This is defined as the minimum amount of activation that it takes to produce a conscious awareness of particular stimuli. One major benefit of this process is that it offers individuals an opportunity to be in a multi-informational setting while choosing to acknowledge any words that may be considered most important and/or more appealing.

CON - This particular theory is unable to scientifically explain how semantic analysis works, which has also caused much controversy within the overall scientific community. This is because semantic analysis is a determination of how language acquires meaning. This process focuses on and can officially identify a relation or relationships/ between certain words, symbols, signs and/or phrases that explain cognition and language. This is also extremely important because a scientific explanation for this process must be acquired to enhance a theory’s overall level of reliability and validity.

Even though, there may be a lack in explaining how semantic analysis truly works with this theory, I still support the idea that this is exactly how humans beings choose selection in attention. This is because I choose to pay attention in the exact same manner on a daily basis. When more than one person is talking to me, I naturally tend to focus on (filter in) those who say something a certain way or whether they are more familiar to me, even though I’m cognitively aware of all others who are talking in the room. 

This theory can also explain why so many people seem to exhibit “selective attention” in most or all social settings. One other positive thing about this theory is that future research could be conducted to further address the lack in explanation concerning how semantic analysis really works. If this can be determined, it would certainly increase the level of reliability and validity that is presently associated with this theory. 

Reference:

Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY. 

2 EXAMPLES OF A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION FOR PROGRAM DESIGN & EVALUATION PROCESS

ASSESSING THE CASE OF SOPHIE & NATHAN FROM SOPHIE'S CHOICE. A FURTHER LOOK AT DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, SUBSTANCE ABUSE, POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER & SCHIZOPHRENIA

   

Recently, I watched a movie called “Sophie’s Choice.” Two of the main characters are named Sophie and Nathan who live at a boarding house in Brooklyn NY. Throughout the movie, these characters exhibit several different behaviors that may be due to individual mental illness. These behaviors also negatively affect how Sophie and Nathan interact within their personal relationship and socially with others. Therefore, the overall purpose of this work is to write a case evaluation that first diagnosis which mental disorder each character may have. I will then provide all pertinent findings, treatment recommendations and any ethical considerations that might apply during their overall assessment and treatment plans.

Case Name: Sophie Zawistowska

Background Information

Sophie is a polish catholic and survivor of the Holocaust. During her time there she was also forced to give up her daughter to be exterminated and her son was sent away never to be seen again. She doesn’t have a college level education but is bilingual and possesses a high level of overall writing and secretarial skills. These were acquired after working for her father translating documents during the Second World War. She is currently unemployed with no source of income so she relies on her boyfriend Nathan for financial support. She also believes that he saved her life because she was extremely ill after being released from the concentration camp and he provided her treatment. Sophie also has scars on her wrists from an attempted suicide but she did not disclose whether she received any psychological help to address the issues that may have caused this behavior. 

Behavioral Observations

Sophie is an extremely intelligent woman who always wears nice dresses and is well groomed. She interacts well with others but has a slight issue trying to fully understand the English language and which words should be used. Her mood is normally pleasant unless she experiences a psychological and/or physical altercation with her boyfriend Nathan or discusses certain remnants of her past. During these times she exhibits emotional behavior that is associated with being a battered woman or guilt and anxiety from certain choices that she made in her past. 

Diagnoses

309.81 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (Chronic Type)

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention:

Physical Abuse of Adult (V61.1)

Findings

After considering Sophie’s background information and current behavior, I would diagnose her with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The main reason for this diagnosis is because according to (DSM-IV-TR. 1995-2013), “when an individual who has been exposed to a traumatic event develops anxiety symptoms, reexperiencing of the event, and avoidance of stimuli related to the event lasting more than four weeks, they may be suffering from this particular Anxiety Disorder.” Research has also shown that most people who suffer with this disorder may have also experienced abandonment and/or severe neglect as children. 

In Sophie’s case, she was exposed to traumatic events that were threatening to the lives of her and her children. This included having to sacrifice the life of her only daughter to save her only son which caused intense feelings of fear, helplessness, and horror at the time of occurrence. Since, this increased level of trauma occurred I suspect that Sophie has continuously recalled the events through cognition of distressing mental images, perceptions or thoughts. However, since these may cause her great psychological distress, she chooses to use total avoidance of the events as a major coping mechanism. This includes continuously making a conscious effort to avoid all feelings, thoughts, or conversations associated with the events.

Since, Sophie lives her life trying to avoid these haunting aspects from her past, it has also caused a feeling of being detached or estranged from many others. One example of this is when she thinks about the "choice" that she made as a mother and it makes her believe that she has less worth than all other mothers. She also exhibits a slight restricted range of affect and high sense of a foreshortened future. Some examples of this are when she always tells Nathan that she is going to die and when telling Stingo that she’ll probably never be able to love him, live a normal life in Virginia or be a good mother for his children.

She also changes the room around at night because she can’t sleep and seems to exhibit an exaggerated startle response during certain physical situations with Nathan. I believe that she is exhibiting these behaviors because she doesn’t want to have nightmares that are associated with her past trauma or experience further physical abuse at the hands of her loving partner. Since, these issues have occurred for several years Sophie also exhibits significant levels of distress or impairment in other areas of functioning. Therefore, she has also become majorly dependent on Nathan to meet her social, economic, psychological and physical needs.

Furthermore, I also believe that Sophie has been a repeated victim of physical abuse during the course of her relationship with Nathan. This occurs because when he experiences certain symptoms associated with his mental illness while abusing substances, he becomes physically violent and aggressive toward her. There are also repeated scenes in the movie when she is crying and tries to conceal visible bruises that he has left on her body. Although, she says that his abusive behavior is okay and allows it to continue due to her extreme level of overall dependency on him.

Treatment Recommendations

When reviewing Sophie’s case, there are some major issues that would need to be addressed. The first one is her psychological need to use avoidance to deal with her past. This is a major issue because it’s preventing her from dealing with feelings of guilt and shame in an appropriate and healthy manner. I would also treat this issue by using one-on-one talk and exposure therapy. This way, she would be able to verbally expose issues from her past in a safe environment and learn coping skills that can be used to manage her overwhelming level of guilt and shame. 

Furthermore, I would also prescribe a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor to reduce the intensity of these negative feelings. This is because according to (Jaffe & Schub. 2012), “selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the first-line medications used to treat PTSD and are the only medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of PTSD.” Finally, I would refer Sophie to an agency that helps women who are victims of domestic violence. This is because she may be able to receive beneficial services like further counseling, a safer place to live and group therapy with other victims.  

Prognosis

When reviewing all of the details of Sophie’s case, I don’t believe that she would do well in treatment and that her overall prognosis is less than fair. This is because if she continues to live in her current environment, further abuse from Nathan will most likely occur and she won’t have the positive support system that is needed to fully recover from her severe level of long-term PTSD. Having a positive support system and acquiring treatment are also major requirements for people who develop this disorder after experiencing trauma because it can reduce symptoms and initiate a faster recovery time. However, up to this point she has only received positive support from their mutual friend Stingo who knows little about PTSD. 

I am also confident that she will never acquire the motivation that is needed to end her relationship with Nathan due to her growing dependency and skewed belief that he is her savior. Therefore, her feelings of guilt and shame will probably get worse and she may also begin to experience issues like low self-esteem and worthlessness due to ongoing occurrences of severe psychological and physical abuse.

Ethical/Legal Considerations

When conducting an assessment and treatment plan for Sophie, I will also need to address any ethical concerns that may apply. This is because following ethical standards will help ensure that her rights are protected throughout the overall process. Four specific ethical codes that may also apply to her individual case include:

1. Informed Consent – According to this standard, professionals must inform participants of all features which might affect his or her willingness to participate. This is important because clients will be informed about the overall purpose and it gives them an option to participate or withdraw. I will also implement this by having Sophie sign a written document that identifies the overall content and purpose of the assessment and treatment plan.   

2. Debriefing – This states that all professionals should debrief each client before, during and after the process. This is important because it can ensure that clients are aware of all beginning, ongoing, and final results that may be obtained. This can also allow the opportunity to address any misconceptions that clients may have during the overall process. I could also implement this by ensuring that Sophie was kept informed about all important findings.

3. Protection From Harm – This means that I will need to get permission from Sophie prior to treatment and if any aspects of treatment may be harmful to her I will avoid using them.

4. Confidentiality – This standard protects the rights of clients by mandating that personal information can only be released under specific circumstances. Following this law is important because it can ensure that no harm occurs to the client due to personal information being released in a malicious or damaging manner to third party members. However, according to (BACB Guidelines For Responsible Conduct), a behavior analyst can “disclose confidential information without the consent of the individual only as mandated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid purpose, such as (1) to provide needed professional services to the individual or organizational client, (2) to obtain appropriate professional consultations, (3) to protect the client or others from harm, or (4) to obtain payment for services, in which instance disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve the purpose” (p.4). Since, this is the case I may be required to report some of Sophie’s personal information to specific third parties that can further assist her. This is because she is a victim of domestic violence which is a crime and she may also be a danger to herself due to an unstable psychological state and/or mental disorder.

Client Name: Nathan

Background Information

Nathan is 29 years of age and from a Jewish descent. He currently lives in Brooklyn with his girlfriend Sophie and states that he is a biologist but his brother says that he actually works at a library. He claims that he graduated from Harvard University but his brother dispels that lie as well by saying that Nathan has no college education and is regularly abusing cocaine. Furthermore, he was diagnosed with Paranoid Schizophrenia at the age of 10 and has been in and out of mental institutions. The symptoms that are associated with this particular disorder are also still present.

Behavioral Observations

Nathan is an extremely intelligent man who often wears nice suits and is well groomed. He interacts well with others unless he experiences a psychotic episode. This is when his mood changes and he becomes extremely agitated, angry, paranoid, and delusional. During this time, he also psychologically and physically abuses Sophie on a severe level. Furthermore, he also has delusions of grandeur which make him believe that he is a brilliant biologist and almost every aspect of his daily life is consumed by this fabricated way of thinking. 

Diagnosis

295.30 (Schizophrenia) Paranoid Type - This type of schizophrenia involves a preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations. In order to diagnose a client with this disorder, he or she must also still have organized speech and non-catatonic behavior.

Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention:

Substance Abuse and possible Bi-Polar Disorder 

Findings

After reviewing Nathan’s background information and long-term behavior, I diagnosed him with Paranoid Schizophrenia because he meets the criteria for that disorder. This is because he exhibits the following symptoms and/or behavior:

1. Clinically significant distress – He feels bad after he hurts Sophie due to his disorder.

2. Mood changes with periodic hypomania – He becomes agitated and physically abuses Sophie.

3. Anger that is dealt with by using repression, denial or paranoid projections – He often psychologically attacks Sophie by calling her names and accusing her of cheating on him.

4. Delusions of grandeur or auditory hallucinations – He believes that he graduated from Harvard University and is a brilliant biologist who is working on groundbreaking research.

Treatment Recommendations

When reviewing Nathan’s case, there are major issues that need to be immediately addressed. The first one will be to try and reduce the overall level of symptoms that are related to Paranoid Schizophrenia. According to (Butcher., Mineka & Hooley. 2010), an individual with this type of schizophrenia “shows a history of increasing suspiciousness and of severe difficulties in interpersonal relationships” (p. 463). The symptoms that seem to be most relevant with Nathan are his mood changes with hypomania, paranoid projections, anger, and delusions of grandeur. 

The main reason that these symptoms should be treated as soon as possible is because he is causing psychological and physical harm to Sophie when they appear. These symptoms are also preventing him from being able to live in a normal state of reality. I would begin treating his disorder by verbally teaching him certain coping skills that can be used to manage these symptoms and prescribe an antipsychotic medication to try and reduce the intensity of symptoms and number of episodes. 

Furthermore, I would also refer Nathan for an additional assessment to address possible Bi-Polar Disorder and to agencies that help with domestic violence and substance abuse. This is because he may be able to receive beneficial services like further counseling, a neutral place for discussion, and group therapy with others who are experiencing the same issues.

Prognosis

When reviewing all of the details of Nathan’s case, I don’t believe that he will do well in treatment and that his overall prognosis is poor. This is because if he continues to live in his current environment, further abuse to Sophie will most likely occur when mood changes with hypomania and/or paranoia are present. Therefore, he won’t have the positive support system that is needed to combat symptoms that are associated with his severe level of long-term Paranoid Schizophrenia. Having a positive support system and acquiring treatment are also major requirements for people who develop this disorder because it may reduce these symptoms. 

However, up to this point he has been in and out of several mental institutions and has not improved. I am also confident that he will never acquire the motivation that is needed to end his relationship with Sophie due to his growing obsession and skewed belief that he is her grand savior. Therefore, his symptoms will probably only get worse and he may also begin to experience issues like self-hate and depression due to his continuous psychologically and physically abuse toward Sophie.

Ethical/Legal Considerations

When conducting an assessment and treatment plan for Nathan, I would also need to address any ethical concerns that may apply. This is because following ethical standards would help ensure that his rights were protected throughout the overall process. Five specific ethical codes that may apply to her individual case include:

1. Informed Consent – This means that I will need to inform Nathan about all features that might affect his willingness to participate. I will also implement this by asking him to sign a document that identifies the content and purpose of the assessment and treatment plan.  

3. Debriefing – This means that I will need to debrief Nathan before, during and after the assessment and treatment process. This is important because it will ensure that he’s aware of all beginning, ongoing, and final results that are obtained. This will also allow the opportunity to address any misconceptions that he may have during the overall process.

4. Protection From Harm – This means that I will need to acquire permission before treating Nathan and if any aspects of treatment may harmful, I will avoid using them.  

5. Confidentiality – This states that personal information can only be released under specific circumstances. The BACB Guidelines For Responsible Conduct also state that a professional can disclose confidential information without a client’s consent to protect the client or others from harm. In Nathan’s case, I would be forced to release some of his personal information to third parties. This is because he carries weapons, has threatened others safety and has already caused severe psychological and physical harm to Sophie. Since he is experiencing delusions of grandeur about who he is and what he has become, I also don’t believe that he is competent enough to make important decisions so involuntary hospitalization may be required in the future.  

Summary

This was written after watching a movie called “Sophie’s Choice” which includes two main characters named Sophie and Nathan. There are several scenes in the movie that depict different behaviors which may be associated with individualized mental illness. These behaviors and/or symptoms also negatively affect how Sophie and Nathan are able to interact as a couple and with others in various social settings. Therefore, the overall purpose of this work was to first provide a case evaluation for each character that confirms which mental disorder/s they may have. I then followed each diagnosis with any pertinent findings, treatment recommendations and ethical considerations that may apply to each case. 

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). BehaveNet: APA Diagnostic Classification DSM-IV-TR. Retrieved on February 1 2013 via the World Wide Web at http://behavenet.com/apa-diagnostic-classification-dsm-iv-tr 

Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2004). Guidelines for responsible conduct for behavior analysts. Retrieved on February 2 2012 via Kaplan Online at http://content-asc.kaplan.edu.edgesuite.net/PS502_1004A/images/product/Guidelines%20for%20Responsible%20Conduct.pdf

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14^th Ed.). Boston, MA. Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Higher Education.

Pakula, Alan (Director and Producer). (1982). Sophie’s Choice. (DVD). Lions Gate

Schub, T., Jaffe, S. (2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved on February 3 2013 via the Kaplan Library at http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=b008d357-ffce-4487-b4b6-7d2bd37572c9%40sessionmgr11&vid=9&hid=2