Monday, July 14, 2014

HOW TO LEAD ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & INCREASE EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP (Example Case Study)



There are times when it may be necessary to lead and implement certain changes within an organization so that it can become more successful and foster effective leadership. One present example of an organization where this needs to be done is called Iggy’s Bread of the World, which is owned by a couple named Igor and Ludmilla Ivanovic. They have requested this change because they're unable to exhibit effective leadership while also honoring the organization’s ongoing mission statement.
 This states that “the mission of Iggy’s Bread of the World is to make breads of the highest quality and then deliver them daily to our customers with the highest standards of service and integrity. We are committed to providing a nurturing and respectful environment at our workplace that fosters cooperation, communication and a sense of accomplishment for all employees. We provide tools for growth through education, health benefits and access to alternative medical treatments. We provide leadership through department managers who are motivated, responsible, willing to listen and willing to follow through. We all work together as a team toward the goals set forth in our mission” (Harvard Business School Publishing. 2000. p. 1). 
Therefore, the overall purpose of this work will be to discuss how their goal to ensure effective leadership while also honoring the organization’s mission statement can be accomplished through strategic changes. This overall discussion will also involve further discussion of five specific areas. These areas include identifying the changes that Iggy’s has experienced since its beginning, the changes that need to be made now, identifying resistance that may occur and by who, and developing and implementing a plan that can effectively create these changes.
Changes That Iggy’s Has Experienced Since Its Beginning
When considering how I can accomplish a goal to ensure effective leadership while also honoring the organization’s mission statement, it is important to first learn what changes have already occurred since the organization began. This is important because it will help me understand what strategic changes may need to be implemented to meet this goal successfully. After viewing all aspects of this case, I do see that Iggy’s has experienced several major changes since opening in 1994 (Harvard Business School Publishing. 2000).
One change is that Igor and Ludmilla were initially responsible for managing all aspects of the organization. This included staffing, baking, visiting with potential account holders, writing invoices by hand, and making deliveries. However, now these tasks are completed via 116 employees and an outside management team. While, a second change is that Iggy’s had to move their kitchen from a small place in Watertown to a large warehouse in Cambridge. The kitchen equipment that they are now using is also so specialized that they can’t get parts in the US, so these have to be shipped from Europe, which cost more money. However, as a result, the organization has grown their annual gross sales to 6 million with 300 active accounts, which is much higher than when they initially began (Harvard Business School Publishing. 2000).
Furthermore, a third major change is that a new chief operating officer named Matthew McRae was brought on board in 1999. Three months later, he hired the outside management team that currently handles most of the organization’s business needs. Although, due to the ongoing issues associated with this organizational structure, he recently handed in a resignation because he believes that Igor and Ludmilla are not prepared to handle his type of executive leadership. However, he then withdrew his resignation one day after submitting it (Harvard Business School Publishing. 2000. p. 1).
Changes That Need to be Made Now
Since all of these changes have occurred, it has also decreased Igor and Ludmilla’s current level of direct influence that they have with the baking, employee cooperation, communication and many other aspects of the organization. Therefore, it is important to implement strategic changes that can address and improve these factors. Some major changes that also need to be made will need to include a way that Igor and Ludmilla can increase their level of influence, effectively manage their chief operating officer, and decrease annual costs. 
What Resistance May Occur Due to These Changes and by Who
When changes are implemented within an organization, there are many times when resistance will occur. This can happen because some employees may not agree that these changes are best for the organization or they have become too accustomed to doing things a certain way and don’t want to change. In this case, I think that the main people who will exhibit resistance to change are Matthew McRae and the members of the outside management team. This is because these individuals have been responsible for most of the major decision-making since initially being hired, and they may not want to lose their overall current level of power and control.
Developing and Implementing a Plan to Effectively Make Those Changes
In order for Iggy and Ludmilla to successfully increase their level of influence, manage their chief operating officer more effectively, and decrease annual costs, while ensuring that their mission statement is honored, I will implement specific changes. Which changes will be developed and implemented based on further analysis of certain areas. These areas may also include: Adaptation to the Environment, Efficiency and Process Reliability, Human Resources and Relations, Competitive Strategy, and Management Programs, Systems, and Structures (Yukl. 2013).
With this plan, the first change will be to determine if Matthew McRae and the outside management team should be employed with this organization. This is because they have made several changes that Iggy and Ludmilla do not agree with and Matthew has also threatened resignation if his demands are not met. I don’t think that forcing the decision-making process in this manner is the best action to take for any owners of an organization because they lose power and control, which can jeopardize their overall mission (Harvard Business School Publishing. 2000).
The second change that I will implement is to determine if there are other employees who may not be needed to acquire continued growth within the organization. This is because if Iggy and Ludmilla can lower their current rate of employment, they may reduce costs and still make an annual profit. This is also an important step because there may be several employees who have been hired by the outside management team who are not needed because Iggy and Ludmilla can take over the responsibilities that are required in their positions.  
A third change that I will make is to investigate further options concerning the kitchen equipment that they use. This is because the shipping fees associated with this equipment may be costing the organization more than they need to pay to manage it successfully. I would also start this process by determining if there is lower cost American made equipment that can replace the specialized tools that they are using now (Harvard Business School Publishing. 2000). 
The fourth change that I will make is to analyze the “other” section included with the organization’s annual financial report. This is because the amount associated with this section is extremely high each year and may be drastically affecting the annual profit margin. In this case, the “other” section also does not include a breakdown to explain these high costs. Therefore, I would request a report that identifies these entities to see if some costs could be eliminated (Harvard Business School Publishing. 2000).
The fifth change that I would make is to consider any possible trade-offs and synergies that may affect the organization’s overall decision making process and mission statement. This is because “complex interdependencies and trade-offs among the performance determinants create difficult challenges for leaders.” Furthermore, I will also develop guidelines associated with a competitive strategy to ensure that the mission statement is always honored. Some of these may include: learning about competitor’s products and activities, what clients and customers want and need, determining long-term priorities and objectives, current strengths and weaknesses, and what core competencies the organization currently exhibits (Yukl. 2013. p. 282).
Conclusion
There are times when it may be necessary to implement certain changes within an organization so that it can become more successful and exhibit effective leadership. One example of this involves a couple named Igor and Ludmilla Ivanovic who own an organization called Iggy’s Bread of the World. The reason that changes need to occur is because they have been struggling to try and ensure effective leadership and the organization’s mission statement.
 Therefore, the overall purpose of this work was to discuss how the goal to ensure effective leadership while also honoring the organization’s mission statement can be accomplished through strategic changes. This overall discussion also involved further discussion of five specific areas which included: the changes that Iggy’s has experienced since its beginning, changes that need to be made now, identifying resistance that may occur and by who, and developing and implementing a plan to effectively make these changes. I am also confident that if this plan of development is implemented, Igor and Ludmilla Ivanovic will be able to ensure effective leadership, honor the mission statement, gain back some of the direct influence that has been lost, lower costs, and still make a profit within their organization.
References:
Harvard Business School Publishing. (2000). Iggy's bread of the world. Boston, Mass. 02163.
Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.


Monday, July 7, 2014

THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT & NATURE VS NURTURE DEBATE

    


     According to (Bukatko, 2008, p. 17), “a number of theories influence our understanding of development today.” One of five cognitive processes or “prime determinants” within several child development theories is nature versus nurture. Therefore, the following literature offers a brief review of this highly controversial debate, by addressing these three questions:
1. How do you define the influences from nature?
2. What are some examples from our environment (nurture) that influence development?
3. How do you explain how both nature and nurture influence how people develop?
How do you define the influences from "nature"?
     I would define this influential process as “periods when natural factors and/or experiences can initiate and/or determine an infant’s development. One example of this might be:
1. Maturation – Piaget’s Theory states that this is when development of genetic programs occur.
What are some examples from our environment (nurture) that influence development?
    There are also several environmental factors and/or experiences which can encourage and positively develop normal infant growth. Two examples of these are:
1. The child’s tendency to act will be based on physical, mental and environmental experiences.
2. Knowledge Construction is formed by revision and reorganization of intellectual structures.
How do you explain how both nature and nurture influence how people develop?
     According to (Unit 3 Key Concepts 2, p. 1), “the development of the brain and nervous system involves a pattern of synaptic growth followed by the pruning of redundant neural pathways. Limited exposure to experience during certain sensitive periods of time can delay or prevent the development of certain skills.” This means that normal brain development can only occur if positive natural and nurturing experiences occur during an infant’s sensitive growth periods.
If an infant lacks these natural and nurturing experiences then his or her psychological and/or physical growth may not flourish and further complications can occur. One specific complication can be a delay or absence of cognition, language, physical and social developmental skills and/or growth. When this occurs, the child may also struggle into adulthood trying to combat these undeveloped normal psychological and/or physical needs.

References:
Bukatko, D. (2008) Child and adolescent development, a chronological approach. Ohio; Cengage Learning.
Kaplan University. (2010). Child and Adolescent Psychology: Unit 3/Theories of Child Development: Key Concepts 2. Retrieved on January 9, 2010 at http://kucourses.com 
     





Thursday, June 12, 2014

ADULTS IN THE LAST STAGE OF LIFE - ADDRESSING CHOICE OF LIVING ARRANGEMENTS, BECOMING BITTER & BEREAVEMENT


Adults in the last stage of life often prefer to spend time doing favorite activities and socializing with those who are close to them. By this stage, most adults are retired and living a life that can become complicated by new choices such as type of living arrangements or loss of freedoms (e.g., driving). The following questions will also address some issues that can occur at this stage of development. These include choice of living arrangements, becoming bitter when facing death and what to do if they experience bereavement. 
Why would an older adult choose to live in the same house that she has occupied for most of her adult life, rather than moving into a smaller apartment?

Although, there are many theories that try to explain why an older adult may choose this option, I would explain it via a stage in Erikson’s Theory called “Ego Integrity versus Despair.” According to (Berk. 2010. p. 604), this “involves coming to terms with one’s life. Adults who arrive at a sense of integrity feel whole, complete, and satisfied with their achievements.”

This may also explain why some older adults will choose to live in the same house versus moving into a smaller apartment. If these individuals develop a sense of ego integrity they may feel a sense of pride and accomplishment that is associated with the house. This is because it could be where their positive memories are based, along with feelings of satisfaction with community, neighbors, and where they may have raised their children. Therefore, at this stage in life, these individuals will want to hold on to these feelings of contentment that are valued, versus starting over to build new ones.

However, some individuals could also choose to live in the same house if feelings of despair develop, which is the opposite stage of ego integrity. The main reason that this sense of self could develop is discussed in the next section, however; if individuals choose to live in the same house, it may be due to the notion that there is not sufficient time to positively change the outcome of their lives.

Why do some adults become bitter as they face death while others remain positive and active?

According to Erikson’s Theory, older adults may feel bitterness, hopelessness, and defeated, when they experience a sense of despair versus ego integrity. This outcome also occurs when they believe that they have made several wrong decisions and/or choices in life, but there isn’t enough time to do those things that may initiate a sense of ego integrity. If this occurs, these individuals may also expose this negative sense of self through anger and/or contempt toward others, and experience an overall sense of bereavement and/or grief when analyzing who and what they’ve become in life.

How would I address bereavement with older adults?

If I was going to help older adults that are experiencing bereavement which is due to feeling despair, the first thing that I would do is create a treatment plan that may initiate and/or develop a sense of ego integrity. This could also be accomplished by utilizing “Positive Psychology.” According to (Positive Psychology Center Online. 2007. p. 1), “this is the scientific study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.” This type of approach also supports a core belief that people want to lead fulfilled lives that have meaning. Therefore, when using this approach to treat these clients, I may reveal and/or uncover positive strengths that are hidden. Clients may then foster these positive qualities while also using them as tools to develop a higher level of growth and overall potential. Exposing one’s potential and strengths is also important because it may teach these individuals that they do have purpose and/or meaning and they did offer positive contributions throughout their lives. Therefore, this may help these clients eradicate some of their internal weaknesses and/or negative, destructive thoughts, by replacing them with positive ones. 

One example of this could also be as follows: I am treating a 75 year old man who is experiencing despair versus ego integrity. One main thing that I would do to use positive psychology is have him write down every good thing that he has accomplished. If he can’t think of many, I could ask him to contact loved ones to inquire about one way that he helped or improved their lives. After he reviews the final notes that he acquires, I’m confident that this client will be able to see that his life did have value and meaning. Once this occurs, I also believe that this may naturally instill a higher level of self-satisfaction and overall integrity.   

Reference:

Positive Psychology Center Online (2007) University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved via the World Wide Web on June 16 2012 at http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/index.html

Friday, April 18, 2014

LANGUAGE AS AN EXEMPLAR OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS


Many believe that the use of language is what sets us apart from the lower species. It also allows us the opportunity to communicate our ideas, intent, stories, and new concepts with others in a successful manner. After several years of research, investigators have also determined that language may be used as an exemplar of cognitive psychology. This is because the process of language requires an individual to use many of the skills and/or functions that are directly related to the principles of cognitive psychology. Furthermore, some of these skills and/or functions include the cognitive ability to pay attention, receive and perceive information, use verbal mental imagery, store and retrieve memory, problem solve, reason, and make decisions. Therefore, this work will address whether I think language acts as an adequate representation of the material that was provided for seven units of a previous cognitive psychology course. The unit numbers and material discussed will also include the following:
UNIT 2 – THE BRAIN & PERCEPTION
UNIT 3 – ATTENTION & PERFORMANCE
UNIT 4 – MENTAL IMAGERY & REPRESENTATION
UNIT 5 – ENCODING & STORAGE OF MEMORY
UNIT 6 – RETENTION & RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY
UNIT 7 – PROBLEM SOLVING & EXPERTISE
UNIT 8 – REASONING & DECISION MAKING
UNIT 2 – THE BRAIN & PERCEPTION
This unit discussed the functional and structural elements of the brain along with perception. When reviewing other research that addressed how the brain works and perceives information, I did find one textbook which is called: Neuropsychological Assessment. According to (Lezak, Howieson & Loring. 2004), “the brain is an intricately patterned complex of small and delicate structures. Three major anatomical divisions of the brain succeed one another along the brain stem: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain” (p. 42). Therefore, individual cognition can be determined based on how information is processed and flows through certain structures within these divisions. The basic pattern in which cognition seems to occur will begin with reception of information that comes from the environment, followed by conversion and/or processing of that information in a way that it becomes useful and successfully perceived. This overall process is also completed through specialized receptor cells and certain sections of the brain. Although, this usually occurs within normal cognition, there are times when one or more of these brain functions may not be normally developed due to injury or damage. After reviewing several articles that covered different visual and auditory deficits that may affect cognition I chose to write about Achromatopsia. According to (Futterman. 1998-2004), “this is a rare hereditary vision disorder which affects 1 person in 33,000 in the U. S” (p. 1). People who have this deficit may exhibit one or more of the following signs and symptoms when tested:
1. Young Age – This condition is usually more pronounced in infants and children.
2. Photophobia – This is an increased sensitivity or intolerance to light.
3. Poor visual acuity – The individual will not have a proper or normal level of detailed vision.
4. Lack of color perception – The individual lacks color vision and sees in black, white or grey.
5. Stable condition – Symptoms have been present since infancy and remained unchanged.
6. Normal fundus – This part includes the retina, macula, fovea, optic disc and posterior pole.
7. Abnormal photopic ERG – There is an abnormality in cone functioning when tested.
8. Normal rod vision ERG – These are normal results in rod functioning when tested.  
9. Nystagmus – This is an involuntary or voluntary eye movement that can reduce overall vision. There are also several ways that this condition may affect normal cognition in patients. One main thing is that if people process stimuli in black, white or shades of grey, then overall perception will also be distorted.  Therefore, this may affect how the individual will use language when discussing all aspects of the environment around them. For example, if I say “that’s a nice pink flower” the person won’t use the real color when seeing or processing the image, because he or she has never seen it. Furthermore, the individual’s verbal description and color of the flower may be completely different so communication will also be affected. Since this is the case, I also believe that language acts as a representative model of the material for this unit.
UNIT 3 – ATTENTION & PERFORMANCE
This unit discussed how the level of expertise in attention may affect overall performance of language. Many researchers, scientists, psychologists and other professionals believe that as human beings, we can only process incoming information by focusing on one oral message or visual object at a time. This is due to something called serial bottlenecks, which is the point when all incoming information may no longer be processed at the same time because it interferes with the procession of an individual stimuli and/or message. After reviewing all of the selection in attention theories that are discussed in our text, I also addressed Treisman’s Attenuation Theory. According to (Anderson. 2010), “this model hypothesized that certain messages would be weakened but not filtered out entirely on the basis of their physical properties” (p. 67). One pro of this theory is that it allows individuals the opportunity to process multiple stimuli or messages while being filtered through the unattended channel based on word importance of each individual stimulus. This process is also known as the threshold effect. Stimuli with a low threshold are more likely to be filtered into one’s conscious awareness while stimuli with a high threshold, is more likely to get filtered out by one’s conscious awareness. One specific article that discussed whether performance may be affected by selection in attention is called “The Impact of Cell Phone Conversations on Driving: A Meta-Analytic Approach.” According to (Horrey & Wickens. 2004), a meta-analytical study was conducted to determine if lack of focus and performance may be different among hands on and hands free cell phone use and conversations that take place with a passenger in the car. This included sixteen studies and results were acquired after closer analysis of 37 total entries. These results indicated that overall “driving performance were roughly equivalent whether the conversation was with a passenger or whether over a cell phone” (p. 1). This is because certain distractions were present in all of these situations. Therefore, the conclusion is that a lack of cognitive attention and focus can be affected no matter which of these tasks are being performed while driving. However, one con of this theory is that it is unable to scientifically explain how semantic analysis works, which has also caused much controversy within the overall scientific community. This is because semantic analysis is a determination of how language acquires meaning. This process focuses on and identifies relationships between certain words, symbols, signs and/or phrases that explain cognition and language. This is also extremely important because a scientific explanation for this process must be acquired to enhance a theory’s reliability and validity.
Even though, there may be a lack in explaining how semantic analysis works with Treisman’s Attentuation Theory, I still support the idea that the level of expertise in attention does affect how human beings choose to perform language. This is because I choose to pay attention and perform language skills based on what most captures my attention. Therefore, I also believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit.
UNIT 4 – MENTAL IMAGERY & REPRESENTATION
This unit discussed certain ways that information can be brought into our minds, what form it may take, along with, how it is handled and organized. One specific way that information may be processed and represented within the human mind is known as mental imagery. According to (Anderson. 2010), mental imagery is defined as “the processing of perceptual-like information in the absence of an external source for the perceptual information” (p. 93). Researchers have also spent many years trying to determine how individuals process information with mental imagery, if it may be directly related to perceptual processing, which different brain structures are involved during the overall process, and how we develop and use these images within our environment. One particular mental imagery based study was conducted by Roland and Friberg to analyze brain activation of participants who suffered from brain damage and those who have normal brain function. The results indicated that when processing information with a mental image, certain areas of the brain were used and it depended on whether participants were asked to process a verbal or visual image. Participants who processed a verbal image of rehearsing a song jingle or language task, showed activation in the prefrontal cortex and the parietal-temporal region of the posterior cortex. During this time, the researchers were also able to determine that those who suffered with brain damage showed deficits in the ability to carry out a verbal imagery task because the specialization areas of language were affected. However, when analyzing participants that were asked to complete a visual task of finding their way around streets in their neighborhoods, the results showed activation in the parietal cortex, temporal cortex and occipital cortex. This means that even though certain specialized areas for processing language and visual information may be different, some of the same brain structures were still used when processing both verbal and visual imagery. Therefore, the conclusion of this study was that all of these structures are involved in the cognitive processing of visual perception and attention. These results also provided evidence which supports the idea that we experience a cognitive process known as embodied cognition with mental imagery and/or overall perception. This is the belief that one’s motor abilities, personal experiences and environment are what determine individual thought processes and/or overall cognition.
Furthermore, a second article that I read was called “Personality differences in mental imagery and the effects on verbal memory.” This discussed how mental imagery may be processed differently when analyzing those who are extroverts versus those who are introverts. The study was conducted using a sample which included participants who were both extraverts and introverts. According to (McDougall & Pfeifer. 2012), all participants were “asked to remember a series of concrete and abstract nouns, including a set of lexically ambiguous concrete homonyms (e.g., earth=1. plant, 2. soil)” (p. 1). The results indicated that extraverts appeared to exhibit higher recall of vivid imagery over those who were introverts, when analyzing aspects of how the type of word was presented. This is because initial results showed that higher levels of recall were observed with visual imagery tasks that involved unambiguous nouns first, concrete homonyms second and abstract nouns third. However; these results did not indicate that extroverts possess a higher level of recall over introverts, even when examining concrete stimuli. Furthermore, later research revealed that neuroticism may actually be the driving factor which caused these differences in recall and word type among extroverts and introverts. They also believed that this higher recall could best be explained by the context availability theory. This means that it may just be easier to process thought for concrete objects over abstract ones. This cognitive process is also based on how long it takes to retrieve information from working memory. One other main conclusion of this study was that the overall results could not confirm that there is a correlation between higher recall with mental imagery and having an extroverted personality type, so the authors provided recommendations for future study. When learning about the overall cognitive process of mental imagery and perception, it is also important to understand the differences and similarities between the perception of an imaginary object and the perception of an actual object. One main reason for this is because it lets us understand that perceiving an imaginary object in the mind may be similar to actual objects in the environment but there are differences. We can then use this information to better understand the world, so our overall language skills and personality may be enhanced. Since this may be the case, I also believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit.
UNIT 5 – ENCODING & STORAGE OF MEMORY
This unit discussed how information is encoded and stored in memory, along with different types of memory that are used for different purposes. According to (Anderson. 2010), “elaborative processing involves creating additional information that relates and expands on what it is that needs to be remembered.” Elaboration is also an important cognitive process because it may allow an increased ability to recall or remember many things because they have been encoded and stored in a particular way. One study that was done to prove that using elaboration will initiate higher memory skills, was conducted by J. R. Anderson and Bower (1973). During this time, all participants were asked to remember simple sentences but only some were asked to also use elaboration during the process. The results indicated that only 57% of those who didn’t use elaboration were able to remember the objects being studied, while 72% of those who did use elaboration were able to remember the objects being studied. Therefore, these results also support the idea that encoding and storage of memory with elaboration can increase one’s overall level of memory retention. Since this may be the case, certain techniques have also been designed that include this aspect of memory processing. One particular technique is known as the PQR4 Method. This includes six phases that can be used to study a chapter which are: 1. Preview, 2. Questions, 3. Read, 4. Reflect, 5. Recite, and 6. Review.
Furthermore, encoding and storage of memory may also be affected based on how and what events actually occur within one’s environment. One particular type of memory that can also develop due to this issue is known as a flashbulb memory. According to (Anderson. 2010), flashbulb memories are “events so important that they seem to burn themselves into memory forever” (p. 172). The reason that these memories occur are because certain events can have an extremely powerful emotional or mental impact on an individual’s life. This is especially true when an individual experiences an event that may initially cause major trauma, despair, fear or grief at the time of occurrence. Two examples of events that may cause flashbulb memories are when President Kennedy was assassinated and the terrorist’s attacks that occurred on 9/11. This is because when some individuals think about these events, they instantly remember where they were and/or what they were doing at that very moment. According to our reading, one particular study that also investigated this was reported by Talairco and Rubin (2003) and involved students from Duke University. Throughout a 42 week duration participants were asked at different times to recall memories of the specific attacks, along with other ordinary events from the same day. The results indicated that these participants showed no evidence of being able to recall flashbulb memories at a better rate than everyday events which occurred on the same day. Although, one major variable that may have affected the results of this study was that these participants had not experienced the attacks firsthand and therefore, may have possessed a much lower overall connection to the events. Furthermore, a second study was reported by Sharot, Martorella, Delgado, and Phelps (2007) that involved participants who were in different sections of Manhattan at the time of the Twin Tower attacks. These individuals were asked to recall memories three years after the attacks and the summer prior to that day. The researchers also measured brain activity based on how close each participant was to the actual site of the attacks. The results indicated that higher activation within the amygdala was measured in those who were physically closest to the attacks. Therefore, this also indicates that retention of flashbulb memories seem to be higher when individuals experience an increased state of arousal. Even though this did occur, the accuracy of these results still could not be verified because it is not clear whether individuals acquire this cognitive ability via a special biological mechanism or because these events may have been discussed at an overall higher rate.
After learning about how information is encoded and stored in memory, along with specific types of memory, I do believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit. This is because we will use our cognitive language skills with those around us based on how individual memory is encoded and stored.  This overall process may also cause certain memory types such as flashbulb memories when communicating about certain events. Therefore, the language that is used during that time may be different, because some will experience this phenomenon but others won’t.
UNIT 6 – RETENTION & RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY
This unit discussed how memories must be retained and retrievable after they have been encoded and stored. This is because if retention or retrieval of memory is not possible, then it will initiate a higher level of overall forgetting among individuals. According to this units reading, research has also been trying to determine and explain what may cause forgetting within the brain. During this overall research process, two specific theories about how forgetting occurs have also caused a controversial debate among many within the field because some question the validity and reliability of the evidence which is being provided. The two theories in question are:
Decay TheoryThis supports the idea that forgetting occurs due to a decrease or decay in long-term potentiation. This happens because there is non-activation of the memories in question. In other words, it provides evidence that if we don’t use certain memories then we lose them, much like many other abilities.
Interference TheoryThis supports the idea that forgetting occurs due to the interference of new information with old information. This can also be reversed and people may forget new information due to interference with old information.
After learning more about both of these concepts, I also think that the interference theory best explains why forgetting occurs within the brain. The first reason that I chose to support this theory is because it seems very possible that we may forget certain memories due to new incoming information. This could occur because the brain can only process a certain level of memory so some is replaced as it more gets processed. While, the second reason that I chose to support this theory is because there may be many times when the brain is so consumed by old memories that it is unable to cognitively process certain new information.
Furthermore, after reviewing several articles and books which also support the interference theory, I was also able to find one called: The Present Status of Interference Theory. According to (Postman. 2012), the main point of this article was to provide evidence which supports the idea that this theory “occupies an unchallenged position as the major significant analysis of the process of forgetting” (p. 1). The author also supported his belief by providing evidence for two different sections. The first included extension and refinement information that was acquired through formal experiments which addressed retroactive and proactive inhibition and the second discussed analysis data from extra-experimental sources. The results seem to hold such a high level of validity that there has been a decrease in debate about basic assumptions that are made concerning this theory. Therefore, this article confirms my initial belief that this theory best explains how forgetting really occurs. However, after years of research, there are also many different types of memory that have been distinguished and may affect the overall process of retention and retrieval of memory. According to (Anderson. 2010), “a great deal of research has looked at dissociations between implicit and explicit memory in normal individuals” (p. 203). A description of these two types of memory along with their separate subclasses is as follows:
Implicit Memory – This is also known as non-declarative memory and it represents certain knowledge which is so deeply embedded that we are unconscious to it. This improves performance because it is memory that helps us remember how to do certain things. The brain structures that are responsible for processing and storing these unconscious memories include the motor cortex, caudate nucleus, cerebellum and putamen, which all involve motor control. The subclasses that relate to implicit memory are also as follows:
Procedural Skills – One example of this is the ability to know how to ride a bike even if it has been years since the last time this skill was performed.
Priming – One example of this is if someone reads a list of words that include “concert.” When that individual is later asked to complete a word that starts with “con” they are more likely to say concert versus others like connect or contact. 
Conditioning – One example of this is when an individual may exhibit an emotional fear of dogs.
Nonassociative – This is when an individual may exhibit habituation which is a reduced response because a certain stimulus is frequently presented. One example of this could include a reduction in fear of dogs because the individual is around them daily. One other type of memory that is associated with this is called sensitization which is an increased response because a certain stimulus is frequently presented. One example of this could include an increased fear of dogs because the individual is around mean and aggressive dogs that are physically threatening. 
Explicit Memory – This is also known as declarative memory and it represents certain knowledge which can be recalled when needed. This improves performance because it is memory that helps us know what needs to be recalled, such as certain facts and events. The brain structures that are responsible for processing and storing these conscious memories include the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, temporal cortex and others. The subclasses that relate to explicit memory are also as follows:
Episodic Memory these memories allow us to recall and reconstruct autobiographical events that may have taken place during certain points in our lives. One example of this is the ability to recall where your last birthday party was and what things occurred during the overall celebration.
Semantic Memory – these memories allow us to recall structured records of things which include general meanings, facts, concepts, and other knowledge about the external world around us. Some examples of these memories may include knowing what a certain food is called, how objects work, and capital cities. 
Sensory MemoryThis has the shortest retention time and includes two main subclasses. The first one is Iconic Memory which forms visual input memories. One example of this is how we may see lines and shapes while drawing in the sky with sparklers, even though these things are not really there. These images will also last in our minds for several seconds after they have initially been drawn. The second is Echoic Memory which forms auditory input memories. One example of this is when we process memory of a song that was once played on the radio.
Short-Term Memory – This involves memory that can only be processed and stored for a short period of time. One example of this could be when an individual looks up a phone number and is only able to remember it long enough to dial the number.
After learning more about how memories must be retained and retrievable, I believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit. This is because we will all use language skills based on whether certain memory can be retained and retrieved. One other important factor concerning how we will use language can be determined by which type of memory each individual will form when the stimuli is presented.  
UNIT 7PROBLEM SOLVING & EXPERTISE
This unit discussed what can be done with information in memory after it has been perceived and stored. The two main topics included how information may be used with problem solving and how to build expertise through certain cognitive skills and/or abilities. One major cognitive issue that can occur when trying to problem solve is called functional fixedness and According to (Anderson. 2010), this is “the tendency to see objects only as serving conventional problem-solving functions and thus failing to see that they can serve novel functions” (p. 232). There are also several times in normal daily life when this type of bias toward certain objects can occur, so many problems may not be solved when they are presented. Therefore, one process that can develop expertise with problem solving is called skills acquisition. This is includes three stages which are as follows:
1. Cognitive Stage – This is the first stage of skill acquisition and it is when the individual develops a conscious understanding of the required task. Therefore, the learner will begin to know what to do and some insight about how to accomplish it. However, the learner may experience errors or problems when attempting to complete a specific task at an optimal level.
2. Associative Stage – This is the second stage of skill acquisition and it is when the individual will repeat associated movements, so his or her ability to complete the task at an enhanced level will develop. During this stage, errors may still occur, but will be at a lower or reduced rate.
3. Autonomous Stage – This is the third stage of skill acquisition and it is when the ability to complete a task becomes automatic. Therefore, the individual will also be able to perform the skill and associated movements, with little to no conscious thinking.
According to (Kaplan Cognitive Psychology Online) this process can also be defined as “a method of gaining expertise in a particular skill characterized by the incidental memorization of patterns that allow much more proficient skill-related activities” (Unit 7 Key Terms). One particular article that addressed further discussed development of expertise is called: Can everyone achieve proficiency with the laparoscopic technique? Learning curve patterns in technical skills acquisition. This study attempted to determine whether all participants could learn certain curve patterns in order to become experts in laparoscopic technique skills. It included thirty seven surgical residents who had limited skills with laparoscopic techniques, and comparable measures that were obtained by experienced laparoscopic surgeons. They were asked to complete 6 specific tasks, 10 times each and the scores were acquired based on errors, time it took and economy of motion. The results measured the following four learning curve patterns:
Group 1 - The experienced surgeons measured expertise with all 10 repetitions from the start.
Group 2 - These participants began to show expertise between the 2 and 9 repetition.
Group 3 - This group showed low levels of expertise after all 10 repetitions were performed.
Group 4 - These participants showed no expert or improvement skills which are needed to learn laparoscopic technique. Therefore, the conclusion was that some individuals won’t develop expertise of laparoscopic techniques skills, when utilizing pattern learning over 10 repetitions.
Even though these results were acquired, I still believe that expertise can occur in most individuals to develop enhanced problem solving skills. This is because the group may have developed expert skills if more repetitions would have been offered. Furthermore, I also believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit. This is because individuals will first need to develop the language skills that are required to solve specific problems and build expertise over time.
UNIT 8 – REASONING & DECISION MAKING
     This unit discussed the importance of language in reasoning and decision making, which is the ultimate goal of most cognitive experiences. According to (Anderson. 2010), researchers have been “investigating brain areas involved in reasoning, and it suggests that people can bring different systems to bear on different reasoning problems” (p. 273). There are also two well-established logical methods of reasoning that have been identified which are:
Inductive ReasoningThis is a process of reasoning that involves the use of specific observations to reach a general theory or logical conclusion. It can be categorized into different types which include: statistical syllogism, simple induction, generalization, false analogy, and casual inference. An inductive argument is also evaluated based on whether it is strong or weak and there are many times when the conclusion will be false even when the specific observations are true. This is because the conclusion is based on an individual’s educated prediction and/or bias thinking. Specific bias thinking that may occur with this type of reasoning could be confirmation bias, availability heuristic, and the predictable world bias. Furthermore, when specific observations are false, the argument will be considered unsound.
Deductive Reasoning This is a process of reasoning that involves the use of a theory or general statements to reach a specific logical conclusion. A deductive argument is evaluated based on its overall level of validity and soundness. Since, this is the case there are times when a deductive argument may be considered valid but unsound. For example, when a specific conclusion is true, the argument may be valid, even though the general statements that were used are false. Since, a deductive argument is based on individual emotion and belief, there are also many times when it may contain a certain level of bias thinking. One example of bias thinking that can occur is when there may be differences in beliefs among varying cultures. Therefore, a deductive argument will only be sound if it is valid and the general statements are true.
One specific article that also addressed the importance of reasoning and decision making is called “Social Norms and Self-Efficacy Among Heavy Using Adolescent Marijuana Smokers.” According to (Walker., Stephens., Neighbors., Rodriguez & Roffman. 2011), “adolescence is a time in which individuals are particularly likely to engage in health-risk behaviors, with marijuana being the most prevalent illicit drug used” (p. 727). When adolescents choose to initially engage in marijuana use, it can sometimes lead to other drugs and possible addiction. Since this can be a serious issue, the authors also chose to investigate whether risky behavior like substance abuse could be correlated with perceived social norms and self-efficacy that exist within the adolescent population. Therefore, the authors discussed a cross-sectional study that was conducted to confirm whether normative perceptions and self-efficacy due play a key role in initiating marijuana use among adolescents. The participants included 180 adolescents ranging from 14 years of age to 19 years of age who had reported using marijuana at least 9 days in one month. The results indicated that marijuana use among adolescents was correlated with perceived social norms but when measuring self-efficacy, the level of supportive data was not strong enough to confirm that it is also a contributing factor. Regardless, of these findings the authors still discussed how both perceived social norms and self-efficacy may be further addressed among this age group to reduce the risk of substance use and possible addiction. This article can also correspond with the material in the unit when discussing how adolescents may engage is risky behavior due to specific reasoning and poor decision making skills. This is because the unit addressed the idea that adolescents might do this due to lack of knowledge and experience or different values and situations. One example of this is if a popular adolescent female wants an unpopular adolescent female to do drugs with her. The unpopular adolescent female may then mentally try and process what could happen if she accepts the offer to do drugs. This mental processing during a problem situation is also known as framing effects and if the unpopular adolescent female frames a mental image that being accepted among popular female peers is desirable, then she may be more likely to do the drugs. Therefore, I also believe that language acts as a representative model of the material that was discussed in this unit. This is because there are numerous times when language can affect overall reasoning and decision making skills among all age groups. This may also be a major reason why so many crimes and fatalities have occurred within our society.
SUMMARY
For many years language is believed to be what sets us apart from the lower species because it allows us to successfully communicate ideas, intent, stories, and new concepts with others. Researchers have also supported the idea that language can be used as an exemplar to represent cognitive psychology because the process requires an individual to use many of the skills and/or functions that are related to its principles. Therefore, this work examined specific units and concepts of cognitive psychology to confirm whether this belief may be true or not. The concepts within these units included: the brain and perception, attention and performance, mental imagery and representation, encoding and storage of memory, retention and retrieval of memory, problem solving and expertise and reasoning and decision making.
After providing a lengthy discussion and supportive evidence for each of these units and concepts, I also confirmed that language can be used as an exemplar to represent cognitive psychology. This is because without language, most of these cognitive psychological concepts would be affected and/or never occur in a normal manner. It is also very important that a correlation between normal language and cognitive psychology do exist because this information can be used to offer patients an overall higher standard of care and support what is known as the “goodness of fit.” This means that it may be easier to offer a more compatible environment according to each patient’s individual temperament based on proper use of language. There are two types of “Goodness of Fit” which are the behavioral fit which addresses how behavior fits within the environment, and the emotional fit which addresses how temperament fits with others in the environment. One major benefit of understanding the concept of goodness of fit is that I can also learn where certain changes may need to be made to further enhance each patients experience and level of care.

REFERENCES:
Anderson, R. J. (2010). Cognitive psychology and its implications (7th Edition). Worth Publishers. New York, NY. 

Futterman, F. (1998-2004). Understanding & coping with Achromatopsia. 2nd Edition. Retrieved on September 29 2012 via the World Wide Web at http://www.achromat.org/uc.pdf

Funch-Jensen, P., Grantcharov, T. P. (2009). American Journal of SurgeryCan everyone achieve proficiency with the laparoscopic technique? Learning curve patterns in technical skills acquisitionRetrieved via the Kaplan Library at http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/ehost/detail?sid=a1e60999-691d-4bce-a675-a826cb14629c%40sessionmgr110&vid=1&hid=116&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=37230402

Horrey, J. W., Wickens, D. C. (2044) The impact of cell phone conversations on driving: A Meta-Analytic Approach. Retrieved on October 7 2012 via the World Wide Web at http://www.humanfactors.illinois.edu/Reports&PapersPDFs/TechReport/04-02.pdf

Howieson, D., Lezak, M., & Loring, D. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kaplan Cognitive Psychology Online Campus: Retrieved via Kaplan Campus at http://contentasc.kaplan.edu/PS530_1101C/INSTRUCTION_Vf8jSA9RduBch9ZcxJUuAQ.xml_KEY_TERMS_dn_21_1.html

Neighbors, C.Rodriguez, M. L.Roffman, A. R., Stephens, S. R., Walker, D. D. (2011). Social norms and self-efficacy among heavy using adolescent marijuana smokers. Retrieved via the Kaplan Library at

McDougall, S., Pfeifer, G. (2012). Personality differences in mental imagery and the effects on verbal memory. Retrieved on October 10 2012 via the World Wide Web at

Postman, L. (2012). Verbal learning and verbal behavior: The Present Status of Interference Theory. Retrieved via the Kaplan Library at http://ehis.ebscohost.com.lib.kaplan.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=f2d0d4a6-8efd-4223-94b1-317c2d427140%40sessionmgr12&vid=2&hid=22